# The Travels of Marco Polo

## THE BOOK OF MARCO POLO.

### PROLOGUE.
Great Princes, Emperors, and Kings, Dukes and Marquises, Counts, Knights, and Burgesses! and People of all degrees who desire to get knowledge of the various races of mankind and of the diversities of the sundry regions of the World, take this Book and cause it to be read to you. For ye shall find therein all kinds of wonderful things, and the divers histories of the Great Hermenia, and of Persia, and of the Land of the Tartars, and of India, and of many another country of which our Book doth speak, particularly and in regular succession, according to the description of Messer Marco Polo, a wise and noble citizen of Venice, as he saw them with his own eyes. Some things indeed there be therein which he beheld not; but these he heard from men of credit and veracity. And we shall set down things seen as seen, and things heard as heard only, so that no jot of falsehood may mar the truth of our Book, and that all who shall read it or hear it read may put full faith in the truth of all its contents.

For let me tell you that since our Lord God did mould with his hands our first Father Adam, even until this day, never hath there been Christian, or Pagan, or Tartar, or Indian, or any man of any nation, who in his own person hath had so much knowledge and experience of the divers parts of the World and its Wonders as hath had this Messer Marco! And for that reason he bethought himself that it would be a very great pity did he not cause to be put in writing all the great marvels that he had seen, or on sure information heard of, so that other people who had not these advantages might, by his Book, get such knowledge. And I may tell you that in acquiring this knowledge he spent in those various parts of the World good six-and-twenty years. Now, being thereafter an inmate of the Prison at Genoa, he caused Messer Rusticiano of Pisa, who was in the said Prison likewise, to reduce the whole to writing; and this befell in the year 1298 from the birth of Jesus.

#### CHAPTER I. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers Polo set out from Constantinople to explore the world.

It happened in the year of our Lord 1260, when Baldwin was ruling in Constantinople, that Messer Nicolas Polo, the father of my lord Mark, and Messer Maffeo Polo, the brother of Messer Nicolas, were in the city of Constantinople, where they had traveled from Venice with their merchant goods. These two brothers, both exceptionally noble, wise, and prudent men, decided together to cross the Greater Sea on a trading venture; so they gathered a supply of jewels and set out from Constantinople, crossing the sea to Soldaia.

#### CHAPTER II. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers Continued Beyond Soldaia.

After spending some time at Soldaia, the brothers discussed their plans and decided it was best to travel further. So, they left Soldaia and journeyed until they reached the court of a Tartar prince named Barca Kaan, whose main residences were at Sara and Bolgara.  Barca warmly welcomed the two brothers and treated them with great honor; in return, they presented him with all the jewels they had brought. The prince was very pleased with these gifts and graciously accepted them, rewarding the brothers with at least twice the value of what they had given him.

After spending a year at this prince's court, a major war broke out between Barca and Aláu, the Lord of the Tartars of the Levant, with vast armies assembled on both sides.

**Map illustrating the geographical position of the City of Sarai**![](assets/images/part-1/images/i004a.jpg)

**Part of the remains of the CITY of SARAI near TZAREV, north of the AKHTUBA branch of the VOLGA**![](assets/images/part-1/images/i004b.jpg)

Lit. Frauenfelder, Palermo

Eventually, Barca, the Lord of the Tartars of the West, was defeated, though both sides suffered heavy casualties. Because of this war, it became extremely dangerous to travel—at least along the road by which the brothers had arrived—though there was still a way forward. Unable to return by the way they had come, the brothers decided to press onward. Leaving Bolgara, they traveled to a city called Ucaca, situated at the edge of the kingdom of the Lord of the West; from there, they proceeded farther, crossing the great River Tigris and traversing a desert that stretched for seventeen days' journey. In this desert, they came across neither towns nor villages, only encountering Tartar tents where people tended their cattle at pasture.

#### CHAPTER III. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers, after crossing a desert, arrived at the City of Bokhara, and met certain Envoys there.

After they had crossed the desert, they reached a very large and noble city called Bokhara, whose territory was ruled by a king named Barac, also called Bokhara. The city is the finest in all Persia. When they arrived there, they found that they could neither advance nor turn back; so they remained in Bokhara for three years. While they were staying in the city, there arrived some Envoys from Alau, Lord of the Levant, who were headed to the Court of the Great Kaan, the ruler of all the Tartars in the world. When the Envoys saw the Two Brothers, they were astonished, for they had never before seen Latins in that part of the world. They said to the Brothers, “Gentlemen, if you take our advice, you will gain great honor and profit from it.” The Brothers replied that they would gladly hear more. “Indeed,” said the Envoys, “the Great Kaan has never seen any Latins, and he very much wishes to do so. Therefore, if you accompany us to his Court, you can be certain that he will be delighted to see you and will treat you with great honor and generosity; and as long as you travel with us, you will be perfectly safe and need not fear any trouble.”

#### CHAPTER IV. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers followed the Envoys’ advice and traveled to the Court of the Great Kaan.

After making arrangements, the Two Brothers set out with the Envoys and traveled for a whole year, going northward and northeastward, before finally reaching the Court of that Prince. On their journey, they witnessed many marvels of various kinds, but for now, we shall not describe them, since Messer Mark, who has also seen them all, will recount them in detail in the Book to follow.

#### CHAPTER V. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers arrived at the Court of the Great Kaan.

When the Two Brothers arrived at the Court of the Great Kaan, he received them with great honor and hospitality, clearly pleased with their visit, and asked them many questions. First, he inquired about the emperors—how they maintained their dignity and administered justice in their lands, and how they went to battle, and so on. Then he asked similar questions about other kings, princes, and rulers.

#### CHAPTER VI. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan asked about the customs of the Christians, especially about the Pope of Rome.

Afterwards, he asked about the Pope and the Church, everything that is done at Rome, and all the customs of the Latins. The Two Brothers answered truthfully and in good order, like sensible men, and were able to do so because they knew the Tartar language well.

#### CHAPTER VII. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan sent the Two Brothers as his Envoys to the Pope.

When that Prince, named Cublay Kaan, Lord of the Tartars across the whole earth and ruler of all the kingdoms, provinces, and territories of that vast quarter of the world, had heard everything the Brothers told him about the ways of the Latins, he was very pleased, and decided to send them on an embassy to the Pope. He urgently requested them to undertake this mission along with one of his Barons; and they replied that they would gladly carry out all his commands as those of their Sovereign Lord. Then the Prince summoned one of his Barons, whose name was Cogatal, and told him to prepare, as he was to be sent to the Pope with the Two Brothers. The Baron replied that he would fulfill the Lord’s commands to the best of his ability.

After this, the Prince had letters to the Pope written in the Tartar language, and entrusted them to the Two Brothers and his Baron, instructing them on what he wished them to say to the Pope. The contents of the letter were to this effect: He asked that the Pope send as many as a hundred people of our Christian faith—intelligent men, learned in the Seven Arts, well qualified for debate, and able to clearly demonstrate by argument to idolaters and others that the Law of Christ was superior, and that all other religions were false and worthless. If they succeeded, he and all under him would become Christians and faithful subjects of the Church. Finally, he instructed his envoys to bring back some Oil from the Lamp that burns on the Sepulchre of our Lord at Jerusalem.

![](assets/images/part-1/images/i015.jpg)

The Great Kaan delivering a Golden Tablet to the Brothers. From a miniature of the 14th century.

#### CHAPTER VIII. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan gave them a Tablet of Gold, bearing his orders in their behalf.

When the Prince had entrusted them with his mission, he had a Tablet of Gold given to them. On it was inscribed that the three Ambassadors should be provided with everything they needed throughout all the lands they passed through: with horses, escorts, and, in short, whatever they required. After making all necessary preparations, the three Ambassadors said their farewells to the Emperor and set out.

After traveling for I don’t know how many days, the Tartar Baron fell ill, so severely that he could not ride. Too sick to continue, he stopped in a certain city. The Two Brothers decided it was best to leave him and continue the mission, and, as he agreed, they went on. I assure you, wherever they went, they were honorably provided with everything they needed or wanted. This was due to the Tablet of Authority from the Lord that they carried with them.

So they traveled onwards until they arrived at Layas in Hermenia, a journey that took, I assure you, three years. It took them so long because they were sometimes delayed by snow, heavy rains, or great torrents making travel impossible.

#### CHAPTER IX. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers came to the city of Acre.

They left Layas and came to Acre, arriving there in April, in the year of Christ 1269, and there learned that the Pope was dead. When they found out the Pope was dead (his name was Pope **), they went to a wise Churchman, Legate for all Egypt and a man of great authority, named Theobald of Piacenza, and told him of their mission. When the Legate heard their story, he was very surprised, and considered the affair a great honor and benefit for all Christendom. So his answer to the two Ambassador Brothers was: “Gentlemen, you see the Pope is dead; so you must be patient until a new Pope is chosen, and then you can fulfill your charge.” Seeing clearly that the Legate’s advice was reasonable, they replied: “But while a new Pope is being elected, we might as well go to Venice and visit our families.” So they left Acre and went to Negropont, and from Negropont continued on to Venice. Once there, Messer Nicolas found his wife had died, leaving behind a son of fifteen years, named Marco; and it is of him that this book tells. The Two Brothers stayed in Venice for two years, waiting until a new Pope was chosen.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i018.jpg)

ACRE *AS IT WAS WHEN LOST* (A.D. 1291).
*FROM THE PLAN GIVEN BY*
MARINO SANUTO.

#### CHAPTER X. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers again departed from Venice, on their way back to the Great Kaan, and took with them Mark, the son of Messer Nicolas.

When the two brothers had stayed as long as I have described, and saw that a new Pope was still not chosen, they decided that they could delay their return to the Great Kaan no longer. So they set out from Venice, bringing Mark with them, and traveled straight back to Acre, where they found the Legate mentioned earlier. They discussed matters with him at length, and asked his permission to travel to Jerusalem to obtain some oil from the Lamp on the Sepulchre, as the Great Kaan had requested. The Legate gave them permission, so they went from Acre to Jerusalem, got some of the oil, and then returned to Acre. There they told the Legate: “As we see no indication that a Pope will be elected soon, we wish to return to the Great Kaan; for we have already delayed long enough.” The Legate replied: “Since it is your desire to go back, I am satisfied.” So he arranged for letters to be written for the Great Kaan, explaining that the two brothers had come in good faith to carry out his charge, but that because there was no Pope, they had been unable to fulfill it.

#### CHAPTER XI. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers set out from Acre, and Mark along with them.

When the two brothers received the Legate’s letters, they departed from Acre to return to the Great Kaan, reaching as far as Layas. But soon after they arrived there, they received news that the Legate had been chosen Pope, taking the name Pope Gregory of Piacenza; news which greatly pleased the brothers. Not long after, a message came to them at Layas from the Legate, now Pope, requesting on behalf of the Apostolic See that they not continue their journey, but instead return to him immediately. And what more can I tell you? The King of Hermenia had a galley prepared for the two Ambassador Brothers and sent them back to the Pope at Acre.

#### CHAPTER XII. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers presented themselves before the new Pope.

When they were honorably conducted to Acre, they came before the Pope and paid him their respects with humble reverence. He received them with great honor and satisfaction and gave them his blessing. He then appointed two friars of the Order of Preachers to accompany them to the Great Kaan, to do whatever might be required. These were considered some of the most learned churchmen in the province at that time—one named Friar Nicolas of Vicenza, the other Friar William of Tripoli. The Pope also gave them official credentials and letters in response to the Great Kaan’s messages . Once they had all they needed, they took leave of the Pope, receiving his benediction. The four of them set off together from Acre, and went to Layas, always accompanied by Messer Nicolas’s son Marco.

Around the time they reached Layas, Bendocquedar, the Sultan of Babylon, invaded Hermenia with a large army of Saracens and ravaged the country, so that our envoys were in serious danger of being captured or killed. When the Preaching Friars saw this they became very frightened and said they would not go any further. So they gave to Messer Nicolas and Messer Maffeo all their credentials and documents, took their leave, and departed in company with the Master of the Temple.

#### CHAPTER XIII. {.chapter}
How Messer Nicolo and Messer Maffeo Polo, accompanied by Mark, traveled to the Court of the Great Kaan.

So the two brothers, along with Mark, continued on their journey, traveling through summer and winter, until they finally reached the Great Kaan, who was then residing at a wealthy and important city called Kemenfu. As for the events they encountered on the road, whether going or returning, we will not detail them here, as all such matters will be described in regular order later in this book. Their return trip to the Kaan took a full three and a half years because of the severe weather and harsh cold they experienced. And let me tell you truly, when the Great Kaan learned that Messrs. Nicolo and Maffeo Polo were on their way back, he sent people a journey of forty days to meet them; and on this trip, as with the previous one, they were honorably treated along the way and provided with everything they needed.

#### CHAPTER XIV. {.chapter}
How Messer Nicolo and Messer Maffeo Polo and Marco presented themselves before the Great Kaan.

And what more can I say? When the two brothers and Mark reached that grand city, they went straight to the Imperial Palace, where they found the Sovereign surrounded by many distinguished Barons. They knelt before him, paying their respects with the utmost reverence . Then the Lord told them to rise, treated them with great honor, showed real happiness at their arrival, and asked many questions about their welfare and their journey. They responded that indeed they had prospered, having found the Kaan well and safe. They then presented the credentials and letters from the Pope, which greatly pleased him; and after that, they produced the Oil from the Sepulchre, which he also received joyfully, as he valued it highly. Next, noticing Mark, who was then a young gentleman, he asked who he was. “Sire,” replied his father, Messer Nicolo, “that is my son and your liegeman.” “He is welcome too,” said the Emperor. And need I say more? There was great joy at the Court because of their arrival; they were welcomed and shown honor by everyone.

So they stayed at the Court with the other Barons.

#### CHAPTER XV. {.chapter}
How the Emperor sent Mark on an Embassy for him.

Now it happened that Marco, son of Messer Nicolo, proved remarkably skillful in learning the customs of the Tartars, their language, writing systems, and their methods of war; indeed, in a short time he became familiar with several languages and four distinct written scripts. And he was wise and prudent in all things, so much so that the Emperor held him in high regard. So, recognizing Mark’s intelligence and admirable conduct, the Emperor sent him as an envoy to a country six months’ journey away. The young gentleman carried out his mission well and with good judgment. He had noticed, on several occasions, that when the Prince’s ambassadors returned from their assignments around the world, they could report on nothing but the official business they were sent for; and as a result the Prince considered them no better than fools, saying: “I would much rather hear about the curiosities and customs you saw in the lands you visited, than simply learn about the business you went on”—for he delighted in hearing about distant countries. So Mark, on his journeys to and from these places, took special care to learn about all sorts of things in the lands he visited, so he could recount them to the Great Kaan.

#### CHAPTER XVI. {.chapter}
How Mark returned from the mission on which he was sent.

When Mark returned from his mission, he presented himself before the Emperor. After making his report about the business he had been entrusted with, and its successful completion, he went on to describe, in a pleasant and intelligent manner, all the new and strange things he had seen and heard. The Emperor and everyone who heard his story were amazed and said, “If this young man lives, he will certainly grow to be a person of great worth and ability.” From that time forward, he was always called Messer Marco Polo, and that is how we will refer to him in this Book, as is proper.

Afterward, Messer Marco remained in the Khan’s service for about seventeen years, steadily traveling back and forth on the missions entrusted to him by the Lord . Since he knew all the sovereign’s ways, like a wise man he made every effort to learn about anything likely to interest the Emperor. When he returned to Court, he would then recount everything in clear order, causing the Emperor to grow even more fond of him. For this reason, the Emperor relied on him even more for the most important and distant missions. Messer Marco always carried these out with care and success, thanks be to God. So the Emperor became ever more partial to him, honoring him further and keeping him close, to the point that some of the Barons grew quite envious. Because of this, Messer Marco Polo came to know—or actually visit—more countries than any other man; especially since he was always eager to learn and to investigate everything so he could have interesting things to share with the Lord.

#### CHAPTER XVII. {.chapter}
How Messer Nicolo, Messer Maffeo, and Messer Marco asked permission from the Great Khan to return home.

When the two brothers and Mark had stayed with the Lord for all that time that you have been told—having meanwhile acquired great wealth in jewels and gold—they began to think about returning to their own land; and indeed, it was time.  They asked him several times for permission to leave, always making their request with great respect, but he was so fond of them, and enjoyed having them around him so much, that nothing could persuade him to let them go.

At that time, Queen Bolgana, wife of Argon, Lord of the Levant, passed away. In her will, she requested that no lady should take her place as Argon’s wife, except for one from her own family . Argon therefore sent three Barons—named Oulatay, Apusca, and Coja—as ambassadors to the Great Khan, accompanied by a grand company, so they could bring back as his bride a lady from Queen Bolgana’s family, his late wife.

When these three Barons reached the Great Khan’s Court, they delivered their message and explained why they had come. The Khan received them with great honor and hospitality, and then summoned a lady named Cocachin, who was from Queen Bolgana’s family. She was a maiden of 17, very beautiful and charming, and after she arrived at Court, she was presented to the three Barons as the lady they requested. They declared that she was very pleasing to them.

Meanwhile, Messer Marco happened to return from India, where he had gone as the Lord’s ambassador, and reported all the things he had seen in his travels, as well as the different seas he had crossed. The three Barons, realizing that Messer Nicolo, Messer Maffeo, and Messer Marco were not only Latins but also men of remarkable sense, thought it would be wise to have them travel together. Their intention was to return by sea, because the long journey overland would be too difficult for a lady. They were especially eager for their company, knowing those three had great knowledge and experience of the Indian Sea and the lands along the way—especially Messer Marco. So they approached the Great Khan and asked as a favor that the three Latins travel with them, since they wanted to return by sea.

The Lord, with the great regard for those three Latins that I have already mentioned, was reluctant to allow this . But in the end, he did grant them permission to go, instructing them to accompany the three Barons and the Lady.

#### CHAPTER XVIII. {.chapter}
How the Two Brothers and Messer Marco Took Leave of the Great Kaan and Returned to Their Own Country

When the Prince saw that the Two Brothers and Messer Marco were ready to depart, he called all three into his presence and gave them two golden Tablets of Authority. These would ensure their freedom of passage throughout his dominions, and wherever they traveled, all their needs would be provided for them and their entire party, along with anything else they might require. He also entrusted them with messages to the King of France, the King of England, the King of Spain, and other Christian monarchs. He then ordered thirteen ships to be prepared, each with four masts and often carrying twelve sails. I could easily provide you with all the details about these vessels, but since it would take too long, I'll save that for another time, when it is more appropriate. [Among these ships, there were at least four or five that each had crews of 250 or 260 men.]

Once the ships were ready, the Three Barons and the Lady, along with the Two Brothers and Messer Marco, took leave of the Great Kaan. They boarded their ships with a large company and with all provisions supplied by the Emperor for two years. They set sail, and after about three months, they arrived at an island to the south, called Java, which contains many marvels we will describe later. Leaving this island, they continued to navigate the Indian Sea for another eighteen months before reaching their destination, encountering many more wonders along the way, which will also be described later.

Upon their arrival, they learned that Argon had died, so the Lady was entrusted to Casan, his son.

I should mention that when they set sail, their party numbered about 600 people, not including the sailors; but nearly all died during the journey, so that only eight survived.

At their arrival, the sovereignty was held by Kiacatu, so they presented the Lady to him and carried out all their duties. Once the Two Brothers and Messer Marco had fulfilled their charge and all the instructions the Great Kaan had given them regarding the Lady, they prepared to depart. Before they left, Kiacatu gave them four golden tablets of authority: two with gerfalcons, one with lions, and one plain. The inscriptions instructed that the three Ambassadors should receive honor and service throughout the land, as if given to the Prince himself, with horses, provisions, and every necessity furnished to them. This was, in fact, how it happened; throughout the country they received ample and excellent supplies of everything they required, and many times, to ensure their safety, they were provided with an escort of around 200 horsemen (sometimes more, sometimes less). This was particularly necessary since Kiacatu was not the legitimate ruler, so people were less restrained from causing trouble than they would be under a rightful prince.

Another important point, which speaks well of the three Ambassadors and the esteem in which they were held, must be mentioned. The Great Kaan trusted and valued them so much that he placed in their care Queen Cocachin, as well as the daughter of the King of Manzi, to be taken to Argon, Lord of all the Levant. These two noble ladies were watched over and protected by the three Ambassadors as if they were their own daughters, until they were safely delivered to their Lord; while the young and beautiful ladies regarded each of the three as a father and obeyed them accordingly. In fact, both Casan—the reigning prince—and Queen Cocachin, his wife, held the Envoys in such great regard that there was nothing they would not do for them. When the three Ambassadors took their leave of the Lady to return to their own country, she wept at their parting.

What more can I say? After leaving Kiacatu, they traveled day after day until they reached Trebizond, then on to Constantinople, then Negropont, and finally Venice. This was in the year 1295 of Christ’s Incarnation.

And now, having recounted all the Prologue as you have heard, we shall begin the Book describing the various things that Messer Marco encountered in his travels.

### BOOK FIRST.
ACCOUNT OF REGIONS VISITED OR HEARD OF ON THE JOURNEY FROM THE LESSER ARMENIA TO THE COURT OF THE GREAT KAAN AT CHANDU.

**Aias, called Laias by Polo, from an Admiralty Chart.**![](assets/images/part-1/images/i041a.jpg)

**Position of *Diláwar*, believed to be the site of Polo’s Dilavar**![](assets/images/part-1/images/i041b.jpg)

Lit. Frauenfelder, Palermo

BOOK I.![](assets/images/part-1/images/diamondbar4.png)

#### CHAPTER I. {.chapter}
Here the Book begins; and first it speaks of the Lesser Hermenia.

There are two Hermenias, the Greater and the Lesser. The Lesser Hermenia is ruled by a certain King, who governs his lands justly, but he himself is subject to the Tartars. The country has many towns and villages, and is rich in all kinds of resources; it is also an excellent region for hunting all sorts of animals and birds. However, it is by no means a healthy place, but rather the opposite. In the past, the nobles there were brave men, who performed great feats in battle; but nowadays they are weak, and good for nothing unless it is for heavy drinking—at that, they excel. Nevertheless, they have a city on the sea called Layas, which is a major trading center. For you should know that all the spices, silks and gold cloths, and other precious goods that come from the interior are brought to this city. Merchants from Venice, Genoa, and other countries come there to sell their goods and to buy what they need. And anyone wishing to travel to the interior (of the East), merchants or others, takes the road through this city of Layas.

Having now told you about the Lesser Hermenia, we shall next speak of Turcomania.

#### CHAPTER II. {.chapter}
Concerning the Province of Turcomania.

In Turcomania, there are three classes of people. First, there are the Turcomans, who are followers of Mahomet. They are a rough people with their own harsh language. They live among the mountains and hills, where they find good pastures, as their main occupation is cattle-keeping. Excellent horses known as *Turquans* are bred in their country, as well as very valuable mules. The other two classes are the Armenians and the Greeks, who live mixed with the Turcomans in towns and villages, engaging in trade and handicrafts. They weave the finest and most beautiful carpets in the world, and also produce a great quantity of rich silks, cramoisy and other colors, along with many other kinds of cloth. Their chief cities are Conia, Savast , and Casaria, as well as many other towns and bishoprics, which we will not discuss now, as that would take too long. These people are subjects of the Tartar of the Levant, who is their Suzerain. We will now leave this province and speak of Greater Armenia.

#### CHAPTER III. {.chapter}
Description of Greater Armenia.

This is a vast country. It begins at a city called Arzinga, where they weave the finest buckrams in the world. It also has the best baths from natural springs to be found anywhere. The people are Armenians and are ruled by the Tartars. There are many towns and villages in the region, but its most distinguished city is Arzinga, which is the seat of an Archbishop. Next in importance are Arziron and Arzizi.

The country is truly immense, and in the summer its excellent pastures draw the entire host of the Tartars of the Levant, who bring their cattle here. However, in winter the cold is extremely severe, so during that season they leave for a warmer region with other good pastures.

You should know that in this land of Armenia, Noah's Ark is said to rest on the top of a certain great mountain .

The country borders a kingdom called Mosul on the south, whose inhabitants are Jacobite and Nestorian Christians—I will discuss them in more detail soon. To the north it borders the Land of the Georgians, about whom I will also speak later. On the border with Georgiania, there is a spring from which oil flows in great amounts—enough that a hundred shiploads could be taken at once. This oil is not suitable for use with food, but it burns well and is also used to anoint camels suffering from mange. People come from great distances to fetch it, as there is no other oil in the surrounding countries.

Now that we have finished with Great Armenia, we will go on to discuss Georgiania.

#### CHAPTER IV. {.chapter}
Of Georgiania and its Kings.

In Georgiania, there is a King called David Melic, which means “David King”; he is subject to the Tartar. In former times, all the kings were said to have been born with the image of an eagle on their right shoulder. The people are very handsome, excellent archers, and highly courageous soldiers. They are Christians of the Greek Rite and have a custom of wearing their hair cropped, like Churchmen.

This is the land beyond which Alexander could not pass when he tried to penetrate into the region of the West, because the pass was so narrow and dangerous, with the sea on one side and tall, impassable mountains on the other. The narrow passage extends for four leagues, and just a handful of people could defend it against the world. Alexander had a very strong tower built there to prevent the people beyond from passing through to attack him, and this became known as the Iron Gate. This is the place mentioned in the Book of Alexander, which tells how he shut up the Tartars between two mountains—not that they were really Tartars in those days, since there were no Tartars then, but rather a race of people called Comanians and others besides.

There are many towns and villages, and silk is produced in great abundance. They also weave cloths of gold and all kinds of very fine silk fabrics. The country produces the best goshawks in the world . It certainly lacks for nothing, and the people earn a living by trade and crafts. It is a very mountainous region, full of narrow passes and fortresses, so much so that the Tartars have never been able to conquer it completely.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i051.jpg)

Medieval Georgian Fortress, from a drawing dated 1634.

“La provence est toute plene de grant montagne et d’estroit pas et de fort.”

In this country, there is a certain convent of nuns called St. Leonard’s, about which I have a very remarkable story to share. Near the church is a large lake at the foot of a mountain, and in this lake there are no fish, large or small, throughout the year—until Lent arrives. On the first day of Lent, they find in it the finest fish in the world, and a great quantity of them; these continue to be found until Easter Eve. After that, they are gone until Lent comes again; and so it is every year. It’s truly an astonishing miracle!

The sea that I mentioned runs very close to the mountains and is called the Sea of Ghel or Ghelan, extending about 700 miles. It is twelve days’ journey from any other sea, and into it flows the great River Euphrates and many others, surrounded by mountains. In recent times, merchants from Genoa have begun to sail on this sea, even carrying ships across and launching them. It is from the area on this sea that the silk called *Ghellé* comes.

See Letter of Frederic to the Roman Senate, dated 20 June, 1241, in *Bréholles*. Muslim writers contemporary with the Mongol invasions regarded these as a clear sign of the imminent end of the world. (See Elliot’s Historians, II.)

When the first edition was published, I was unaware of similar remarks regarding such names by Sir H. Rawlinson in the J. R. As. Soc. vol. xi. and 103.

#### CHAPTER V. {.chapter}
Of the Kingdom of Mausul.

Bordering Armenia to the southeast is the kingdom of Mausul. It is a large kingdom, inhabited by a variety of peoples whom we will now describe.

First, there are people called Arabi who worship Mahomet. There is also another group, Nestorian and Jacobite Christians. These have a Patriarch, whom they call the Jatolic. This Patriarch appoints Archbishops, Abbots, and all other degrees of Prelates, sending them out to various regions, such as India, Baudas, or Cathay, just as the Pope does in the Latin countries. You should know that although there are very many Christians in these regions, they are all Jacobites and Nestorians—Christian indeed, but not according to the discipline set by the Pope of Rome, as they differ in several points of the Faith.

All the cloths of gold and silk known as *Mosolins* are produced in this land. The great merchants called *Mosolins*, who travel selling large quantities of spices, pearls, and silk and gold fabrics, also come from this kingdom.

There is another group of people living in the surrounding mountains called Curds. Some of them are Christians and some are Saracens, but they have a reputation for being a wicked people, delighting in robbing merchants.

#### CHAPTER VI. {.chapter}
About the Great City of Baudas, and How It Was Taken

Baudas is a great city, which used to be the seat of the Calif of all the Saracens in the world, just as Rome is the seat of the Pope for all Christians. A very large river runs through the city, and by its course you can travel down to the Sea of India. There is much trading by merchants along this route; they travel down the river for some eighteen days from Baudas, and then arrive at a city called Kisi, where they reach the Sea of India. On the river, as you go from Baudas to Kisi, there is also a large city called Bastra, surrounded by woods that produce the best dates in the world.

In Baudas, they weave many different kinds of silk cloth and gold brocades, such as *nasich*, *nac*, *cramoisy*, and other beautiful textiles richly decorated with figures of animals and birds. It is the finest and greatest city in all those regions.

Now, it happened one day in the year of Christ 1255 that the Lord of the Tartars of the Levant, named Alaü, brother to the Great Kaan then reigning, gathered a mighty army and marched against Baudas, capturing the city by storm. It was a tremendous feat, for in Baudas there were more than 100,000 horsemen, not counting foot soldiers. When Alaü had taken the city, he found within it a tower belonging to the Calif, which was filled with gold, silver, and other treasures; truly, the greatest collection of wealth ever known in one place. Seeing that vast treasure, he was amazed, and, summoning the Calif before him, said: “Calif, tell me now why you have gathered such a huge treasure? What did you intend to do with it? Did you not know I was your enemy, and that I was coming against you with such a great army to drive you from your throne? Why did you not use your wealth to pay knights and soldiers to defend yourself and your city?”

The Calif did not know how to reply, and said nothing. The Prince continued, “Well then, Calif, since I see how much you loved your treasure, I will let you eat it!” So he locked the Calif in the Treasure Tower and ordered that he receive neither food nor drink, saying, “Now, Calif, eat of your treasure as much as you wish, since you are so fond of it; you will never have anything else to eat!”

The Calif lingered in the tower for four days, and then died like a dog. Truly, his treasure would have been of greater use if he had spent it on men who could have defended his kingdom and his people, rather than allowing himself to be captured, deposed, and put to death as he was. Since that time, there has been no other Calif, either at Baudas or anywhere else.

Now I will tell you about a great miracle that happened at Baudas, wrought by God on behalf of the Christians.

Not that Alaü (*pace* Mr. Longfellow) ever actually saw Cambalu.

#### CHAPTER VII. {.chapter}
How the Calif of Baudas planned to kill all the Christians in his land.

I will now relate this remarkable event that occurred between Baudas and Mausul.

It was in the year of Christ … that there was a Calif in Baudas who harbored a strong hatred for Christians, and spent day and night thinking of how he might convert the Christians in his kingdom to his own faith, or have them all killed. He would regularly take counsel on this with the devotees and priests of his faith, for they all bore the Christians equal malice. In fact, it is true that the whole body of Saracens across the world constantly harbors the greatest animosity toward all Christians.

Now it happened that the Calif and those cunning priests of his found that passage in our Gospel which says that if a Christian has faith the size of a mustard seed, and commands a mountain to move, it will move. And this is indeed true. When they discovered this text they were delighted, for it seemed to offer exactly the means to either force all Christians to change their faith or destroy them entirely. So the Calif summoned all the Christians in his territories, who were very numerous. When they had gathered before him, he displayed the Gospel and made them read the text I mentioned. After they had read it, he asked if they believed it was true. The Christians answered that it certainly was. “Well,” said the Calif, “since you say this is true, I will give you a choice. Among so many of you, surely there must be at least one with this amount of faith; so you must either move that mountain there,”—and he pointed to a nearby mountain—“or you shall suffer a terrible death; unless you wish to avoid death by becoming Saracens and following our Holy Law. For this, I give you a period of ten days; if the thing is not done within that time, you shall die or become Saracens.” And with that, he dismissed them, so they could consider how to escape this dire situation.

#### CHAPTER VIII. {.chapter}
How the Christians were in great dismay because of what the Calif had said.

When the Christians heard what the Calif had said, they were filled with great dismay. Yet they placed all their hope in God, their Creator, trusting that He would help them in this difficult situation. All the wisest Christians gathered to consult together, among them many bishops and priests, but they felt they had no other resort except to turn to Him from whom all good things come, begging Him to protect them from the cruelty of the Calif.

So, all the men and women gathered together in prayer for eight days and eight nights. While they were thus engaged in prayer, it was revealed in a vision by a Holy Angel from Heaven to a certain Bishop—who was a very devout Christian—that he should ask a particular Christian cobbler, who had only one eye, to pray to God; and that God, in His goodness, would grant his prayer because of the cobbler’s holy life.

Now let me tell you what kind of man this cobbler was. He lived a life of great integrity and chastity, fasting and avoiding all sin. He went daily to church to hear Mass and gave a portion of his earnings to God every day. The way he came to have only one eye was this: One day, a certain woman came to him to have a pair of shoes made and showed him her foot so he could take her measure. She had a very beautiful foot and leg, and as the cobbler took her measure, he was conscious of sinful thoughts. He remembered the saying in the Holy Gospel that if your eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away rather than fall into sin. So, as soon as the woman had left, he took his stitching awl and drove it into his own eye, destroying it. And that is how he lost his eye. So you can see what a holy, just, and upright man he was.

#### CHAPTER IX. {.chapter}
How the One-eyed Cobler was desired to pray for the Christians.

When the Bishop had received this vision several times, he told the Christians the whole matter, and they unanimously agreed to call the cobbler before them. Once he had come, they explained their wish that he should pray, saying that God had promised to accomplish the matter through him. On hearing their request, he made many excuses, insisting that he was not nearly as good a man as they thought him to be. But they gently persisted in their request until, at last, he said he would not delay, but do as they wished.

#### CHAPTER X. {.chapter}
How the Prayer of the One-eyed Cobler caused the Mountain to move.

When the appointed day arrived, all the Christians—men and women, young and old, more than 100,000 people—rose early and went to church to hear Holy Mass. After Mass was sung, they all went forth in a great procession to the plain in front of the mountain, carrying the precious cross before them, loudly singing and weeping as they went. When they arrived at the place, they found the Calif with all his armed Saracen host, ready to slay them if they would not change their faith; for the Saracens did not believe at all that God would grant such favor to the Christians. The Christians stood in great fear and doubt, but still placed their hope in their God, Jesus Christ.

The cobbler then received the Bishop’s blessing, knelt before the Holy Cross, stretched out his hands toward Heaven, and prayed: “Blessed Lord God Almighty, I ask Thee by Thy goodness that Thou wilt grant this grace to Thy people, so they may not perish, nor Thy faith be brought low, or abused or mocked. Not that I am at all worthy to make such a request to Thee; but for Thy great power and mercy, I ask Thee to hear this prayer from me, Thy servant full of sin.”

When he finished his prayer to God the Sovereign Father and Giver of all grace, and while the Calif, the Saracens, and all the people were watching, the mountain rose from its place and moved to the spot the Calif had indicated! When the Calif and all his Saracens saw this, they stood amazed at the miraculous work God had done for the Christians, and so many of the Saracens became Christians. Even the Calif himself was baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, Amen, and became a Christian, though secretly. However, when he died, they found a small cross hanging around his neck, so the Saracens refused to bury him with the other Califs, but placed his body apart. The Christians rejoiced greatly at this holy miracle, returning to their homes full of joy, thanking their Creator for what He had done.

And now you have heard how this great miracle happened. Do not be surprised that the Saracens hate the Christians, for the evil law that Mahomet gave them commands them to do as much harm as they can to all other people, especially Christians; to take their goods and do them all kinds of evil, because they do not belong to their law. See then what an evil law and what wicked commandments they have! This is how the Saracens act throughout the world.

Now I have told you something of Baudas. I might well have told you earlier of the affairs and customs of the people there, but that would be too long a matter considering the many and strange things I have yet to tell, as you will find further on in this book.

So now I will tell you about the noble city of Tauris.

#### CHAPTER XI. {.chapter}
Of the Noble City of Tauris.

Tauris is a large and distinguished city, located in a great province called Yrac, which contains many other towns and villages. But since Tauris is the most notable, I will tell you about it.

The men of Tauris earn their living through trade and handicrafts, for they weave many kinds of beautiful and valuable silk and gold fabrics. The city is so well situated that goods are brought there from India, Baudas, Cremesor, and many other regions; this attracts many Latin merchants, especially Genoese, who come to buy goods and conduct other business there. Moreover, it is also a major market for precious stones. In fact, it is a city where merchants make large profits.

The local people are a diverse mix from different backgrounds, but generally are themselves poor. Among the inhabitants are Armenians, Nestorians, Jacobites, Georgians, Persians, and, lastly, the native people of the city, who are followers of Mahomet. These last are said to be a very wicked generation; they are known as Taurizi. The city is surrounded by lovely gardens, full of different kinds of large and excellent fruits.

Now we will leave Tauris and speak about the great country of Persia.

#### CHAPTER XII. {.chapter}
Of the Monastery of St. Barsamo on the Borders of Tauris.

On the border of Tauris’s territory stands a monastery named after Saint Barsamo, a very devout Saint. There is an Abbot with several Monks, and they wear habits similar to those of the Carmelites. To avoid idleness, they are always knitting woolen girdles. During services, these girdles are placed upon the altar of St. Barsamo; when the monks go begging around the province (like the Brethren of the Holy Spirit), they give these girdles to friends and to gentlefolk, as they are highly valued for relieving physical pain; for this reason, everyone desires to obtain them with much devotion.

#### CHAPTER XIII. {.chapter}
Of the Great Country of Persia; with some account of the Three Kings.

Persia is a vast country, which in earlier times was very illustrious and powerful; but now the Tartars have ravaged and ruined it.

In Persia is the city of Saba, from which the Three Magi set out on their journey to worship Jesus Christ; and in this city they are buried, in three very large and beautiful tombs, side by side. Above them is a square building, carefully maintained. The bodies remain whole, with the hair and beard still present. One was named Jaspar, the second Melchior, and the third Balthasar. Messer Marco Polo questioned many locals about these Three Magi, but could find no one who knew anything about it, except that those were three kings buried there long ago. Still, at a place three days’ journey away, he learned what I am now about to relate. He found a village called Cala Ataperistan, which means “The Castle of the Fire-worshippers.” The name fits, for the people there worship fire, and I will tell you why.

They say that long ago, three kings from that land went to worship a Prophet who was born, each bringing an offering—Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh—to determine if the Prophet was God, an earthly King, or a Physician. For, they said, if he took the Gold, he was an earthly King; if he took the Incense, he was God; if he took the Myrrh, he was a Physician.

So as it happened, when they arrived where the Child was born, the youngest King entered first and saw the Child apparently of his own age; so he left, marveling greatly. The middle King went in next, and like the first, saw the Child seemingly of his own age, and he too went out, very amazed. Finally, the eldest entered, and just as with the other two, he had the same experience and left, very thoughtful. When the three joined together and shared what they had seen, they were even more astonished. So, they decided to go in together, and this time saw the Child as it truly was, about thirteen days old. Then they adored him and presented their Gold, Incense, and Myrrh. The Child accepted all three gifts, then gave them a small closed box; afterward, the Kings began their journey home.

#### CHAPTER XIV. {.chapter}
What Happened When the Three Kings Returned to Their Own Country

After they had traveled for many days, the Three Kings decided to look at what the Child had given them. They opened the small box and found a stone inside. Upon seeing this, they began to wonder what the gift from the Child meant, and what its significance was. The meaning was this: when they offered their gifts, the Child accepted all three, and when they saw that, they said among themselves that He was the True God, the True King, and the True Physician. The gift of the stone symbolized that the faith which had begun in them would remain firm as a rock. For He knew well what was in their hearts. However, they did not understand the meaning of the stone at all, so they threw it into a well. Immediately, a fire from Heaven descended into the well where the stone had been cast.

When the Three Kings witnessed this miracle, they were greatly amazed and deeply regretted having thrown away the stone, for they then realized it had a great and holy meaning. They took some of that fire, brought it back to their own country, and placed it in a rich and beautiful church. There, the people keep it always burning and worship it as a god; all their sacrifices are kindled with that fire. If the fire ever goes out, they travel to neighboring cities where the same faith is practiced, obtain fire from them, and bring it to the church. This is why the people of that country worship fire. They are known to travel as much as ten days’ journey to obtain that fire.

Such was the tale told to Messer Marco Polo by the people of that Castle. They assured him that this was their history, and that one of the three kings was from the city called Saba, the second from Ava, and the third from the very Castle where they still worship fire today, along with the people of the surrounding country.

Having shared this story, I will now describe the different provinces of Persia and their particular features.

#### CHAPTER XV. {.chapter}
Of the Eight Kingdoms of Persia, and how they are named.

Now you should know that Persia is a very large country, and consists of eight kingdoms. I will tell you the names of all of them.

The first kingdom is located at the entrance to Persia, and it is called Casvin. The second, farther south, is called Curdistan. The third is Lor; the fourth [Suolstan]; the fifth Istanit; the sixth Serazy; the seventh Soncara; the eighth Tunocain, which lies at the far end of Persia. All these kingdoms are situated generally to the south, except one, Tunocain, which lies to the east and borders on the country of the Arbre Sol.

This land of Persia has a great number of excellent horses. People bring these horses to India for sale, since they fetch a high price there—a single horse may be worth as much as 200 livres Tournois in their money, some more, some less, depending on quality. The country also has the finest donkeys in the world, each being worth up to 30 marks of silver, for they are very large, fast, and possess a superb ambling gait. Dealers transport these horses to Kisi and Curmosa, two cities on the shores of the Sea of India, where merchants from India purchase them and resell them in their homeland.

The country is inhabited by many fierce and violent people, so barely a day goes by without someone being killed. Were it not for the government, currently that of the Tartars of the Levant, these people would do great harm to merchants. In fact, even with the government in place, they often still manage to cause such trouble. Unless merchants are well-armed, they risk being murdered or at the very least robbed of everything; sometimes, if they are careless, a whole group will perish this way. The people are all Saracens, meaning they follow the Law of Muhammad.

In the cities, there are traders and artisans who live by their crafts, weaving gold cloth and various silk textiles. The country produces plenty of cotton, as well as wheat, barley, millet, panic, and wine, along with all kinds of fruit.

#### CHAPTER XVI. {.chapter}
Concerning the Great City of Yasdi.

Yasdi is also located in Persia; it is a fine and notable city, with a significant amount of trade. The people there weave large quantities of a certain silk fabric known as *Yasdi*, which merchants take to many regions to sell. The inhabitants are followers of Mahomet.

When you leave this city to journey further, you travel for seven days across vast plains, finding accommodation at only three places along the way. There are many lovely woods  on this route, through which one can easily ride; and there is excellent sport to be had in hunting and hawking, as there are partridges, quails, and plenty of other game. The merchants passing through enjoy much diversion. There are also wild asses, beautiful creatures. At the end of these seven days' journey across the plain, you arrive in a fine kingdom called Kerman.

#### CHAPTER XVII. {.chapter}
Concerning the Kingdom of Kerman.

Kerman is a kingdom properly belonging to Persia, which once had its own hereditary prince. Since the Tartars conquered the country, the rule is no longer hereditary; instead, the Tartar appoints whatever lord he sees fit to govern. This kingdom produces the stones known as turquoises in great abundance; they are found in the mountains and quarried from the rocks. There are also rich veins of steel and *Ondanique* here. The people are highly skilled in making military equipment: their saddles, bridles, spurs, swords, bows, quivers, and all types of arms are exceptionally well crafted, following the local styles. The women of the country, along with their daughters, excel at needlework, embroidering silk fabrics in various colors with designs of animals, birds, trees, flowers, and many other patterns. They make wall hangings for noblemen that are so skillfully produced as to be marvelous to see, along with cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of other textile goods.

The mountains of Kerman also yield the best falcons in the world. These birds are smaller than the Peregrine, with reddish coloring on the breast, neck, and between the thighs; they are so fast in flight that no other bird can escape them.

Leaving the city, you travel for seven days, always passing through towns, villages, and fine houses, making the journey very pleasant; there is also excellent sport to be had along the way from hunting and hawking. After riding these seven days over plains, you reach a large mountain; on reaching the top of its pass, you then descend over two days. Throughout the journey, you encounter many types and plenty of fruits. In former times, there were many inhabited places along the road, but now there are none; you only meet a few herders with their livestock. From the city of Kerman to this descent, winter cold is so extreme that you can barely endure it, even with heavy clothing.

A knowledgeable colleague objects to Johnson’s *Hundwáníy* = “Indian Steel,” saying it is too definitive; he believes a more general term for *steel* is needed. Even if that is correct, I notice that in all three places where Polo uses *Ondanique* (here, ch. xxi., and ch. xlii.), the phrase is always “*steel and ondanique*.” This suggests that his intended meaning was *Púlád-i-Hundwáni*, expressed with an idiom similar to Virgil’s *pocula et aurum*.

Kenrick suggests that the “bright iron” mentioned by Ezekiel among the goods of Tyre (ch. xxvii. 19) was most likely Indian Steel, since it is listed with cassia and *calamus*.

Literally translated by Mr. Redhouse: “The Indians are skilled in combining mixtures of the chemicals with which they (smelt and) cast the soft iron, and it becomes *Indian* (steel), which is attributed to India (in this phrase).”

In Richardson’s Persian Dictionary, edited by Johnson, there is a term *Rohan, Rohina* (and other variants). “The finest Indian steel, used to make the best swords; also, the swords made from that steel.”

#### CHAPTER XVIII. {.chapter}
Of the City of Camadi and its Ruins; also concerning the Carauna Robbers.

After traveling downhill for two days, you reach a vast plain, and at its entrance there is a city called Camadi. This city was once a great and noble place, but now it has little importance, for the Tartars have repeatedly ravaged it during their invasions. The plain I speak of is a very hot region; and the province you now enter is called Reobarles.

The fruits of this area include dates, pistachios, and apples of Paradise, as well as other fruits not found in our colder climate. [There are vast numbers of turtledoves, drawn by the abundance of fruit, but the Saracens never take them, as they abhor them.] On this plain, there is a bird called the francolin, but it differs from the francolin of other lands. Its color is a mix of black and white, and its feet and beak are vermilion.

The beasts here are also unique; first, I will tell you about their oxen. They are very large and pure white, with very short, smooth hair due to the heat of the country. Their horns are short and thick, not pointed; and they have a round hump about two palms high between their shoulders. There are no handsomer creatures in the world. When they are to be loaded, they kneel down like camels; once the load is set, they rise up again. They can carry heavy loads, for they are very strong animals. There are also sheep here as big as donkeys, and their tails are so large and fat that one tail can weigh about 30 lbs. They are fine fat animals that provide excellent mutton.

In this plain are several villages and towns protected by high mud walls, built to defend against bandits, who are very numerous and called Caraonas. This name is given to them because they are the sons of Indian mothers and Tartar fathers. You should know that when these Caraonas decide to make a plundering raid, they use certain wicked enchantments that bring darkness over the land, so thick you can barely see your companion riding next to you. They can make this darkness cover a distance of seven days’ journey. They know the country well, and ride in lines abreast, staying close together, sometimes up to 10,000 in number, or more or less. In this way, they sweep across the whole plain they are going to pillage, and catch everything outside of the towns and villages—men, women, or animals, nothing can escape them! The old men they capture are killed; the young men and women are sold for slaves in other countries. This has devastated and nearly emptied the whole land.

The king of these ruffians is called Nogodar. Nogodar had gone to the Court of Chagatai, who was the brother of the Great Kaan, bringing about 10,000 horsemen with him, and stayed with him, for Chagatai was his uncle. While there, Nogodar devised a most daring plot, which I will now tell you about. He left his uncle, who was then in Greater Armenia, and fled with a large group of ruthless horsemen, first passing through Badashan, then another province called Pashai-Dir, and then through another called Ariora-Keshemur. Here, many of his people and horses were lost, for the roads were very narrow and dangerous. After conquering all these provinces, he entered India at the edge of a province called Dalivar. He settled in that city and took over its government from the local king, Asedin Soldan, a man of great power and wealth. There, Nogodar remains with his army, fearing no one, and fighting all the Tartars in his region.

Now that I have told you about these scoundrels and their history, I must add that Messer Marco himself was nearly captured by their bands during just such a darkness as I described. But, by God’s grace, he managed to escape to a nearby village called Conosalmi. However, he lost his entire company except for seven people who escaped with him. The rest were captured—some sold, and some killed.

*Khajlak* is cited as a leader of the Mongol raids in India by the poet Amir Khusrú (A.D. 1289; see Elliot III. 527).
Professor Cowell compares the recurring waves of Mongol invasions in the late 13th and early 14th centuries to the ongoing Danish raids in England. A passage in Wassáf (Elliot, III. 38) shows that by 1254–55, the Mongols already occupied Sodra on the Chenab and nearby districts.

#### CHAPTER XIX. {.chapter}
Of the Descent to the City of Hormos.

The plain we have described extends south for five days’ journey. After this, you reach a steep descent about twenty miles long, with a very bad and dangerous road, as many robbers and villains roam the area. At the bottom of this descent, there’s another beautiful plain called the Plain of Formosa, which stretches for two days’ journey. Here you find fine streams of water, many date palms, and other fruit trees. There are also many beautiful birds: francolins, parrots, and other kinds not found in our country. After traveling these two days, you arrive at the Ocean Sea, and on its shore stands a city with a harbor called Hormos. Merchants from India come there with ships loaded with spices, precious stones, pearls, silk and gold cloth, elephant tusks, and many other goods. They sell these to the merchants of Hormos, who then trade them all over the world. Indeed, it is a city of vast trade. There are many towns and villages under its rule, but this is the capital. The King is named Ruomedam Ahomet. The place is very unhealthy, with intense heat from the sun. If a foreign merchant dies there, the King takes all his possessions.

In this country, they make a wine from dates mixed with spices, which is very good. Anyone not used to it will, at first, experience repeated and severe purging when they drink it, but afterwards it benefits them, and they gain weight. The people never eat meat or wheat bread except when they are ill; if they take such food when healthy, it makes them sick. While in good health, they live on dates, salt fish (specifically tunny), and onions, and maintain this diet to preserve their health.

Their ships are poor vessels, and many are lost; they have no iron fastenings, and are only stitched together with twine made from the husk of the Indian nut. They beat this husk until it resembles horsehair, then spin it into twine to stitch the planks together. This holds well and does not rot in saltwater but is not sturdy in storms. The ships are not tarred, but are rubbed with fish-oil. They have one mast, one sail, and one rudder, with no deck—just a cover spread over the cargo. This cover is made of hides, and horses taken to India for sale are placed on top of these hides. Lacking iron for nails, they use only wooden pins in shipbuilding, stitching the planks with twine as described. Therefore, traveling in these ships is risky, and many are lost, for the Indian Sea is often plagued by terrible storms.

The people are black and followers of Mahomet. The locals avoid living in the cities; the summer heat is so extreme it would be deadly. So, they stay (especially at night) in countryside gardens, where there are streams and plenty of water. Even so, they would not survive except for one thing. In summer, a wind often blows over the surrounding sands, so unbearably hot it could kill everyone. When they sense this wind, they plunge into water up to the neck, staying there until the wind ceases. [To prove how severe this hot wind can be, Messer Mark recounted an incident from his time there. The Lord of Hormos, having failed to pay tribute to the King of Kerman, provoked the latter to send a force of 1,600 horse and 5,000 foot soldiers by the Reobarles route to surprise Hormos’s people while they were away from the city. One day, their guide failed them and they couldn’t reach their planned campsite, forcing them to bivouac in a wilderness near Hormos. As they resumed their march the next morning, they were struck by this wind; every one of them suffocated, leaving none to report back. The people of Hormos went to bury the bodies to prevent plague, but when they tried to move them by the arms, the bodies—so thoroughly baked by the heat—had the arms separate from the trunks. Ultimately, they had to dig graves beside each corpse and bury them where they lay.]

People sow wheat, barley, and other grains in November and harvest them in March. The dates are harvested in May, but otherwise, there is no grass or greenery, as the intense heat dries up everything.

When anyone dies, they make an elaborate business of mourning: women mourn their husbands for four years. During this time, they mourn at least once daily, gathering their relatives, friends, and neighbors to hold sessions of great weeping and wailing. [They even have women who mourn for hire.]

Now, let us leave this country. I will not yet speak about India; we will eventually do so, approaching from the north when the time and context fit. For now, let us return by another road to Kerman, for we 110cannot reach the countries I intend to describe except through that city.

I should add that King Ruomedam Ahomet of Hormos, the city we leave, is a vassal of the King of Kerman.

On the road from Hormos back to Kerman, you cross some beautiful plains and find many natural hot baths; there are plenty of partridges along the road, and towns where food is cheap and abundant, with plentiful dates and other fruits. However, the wheat bread is so bitter (from the bitterness of the water) that only those accustomed to it can eat it. The baths have excellent healing properties and cure itchy skin and various other ailments.

Now, I am about to tell you about the northern countries, which you will hear about in due order. Let us begin.

The Sárdú road enters the Jíruft plain at the ruins of the old city, while the Deh Bekrí route reaches it some distance to the east. The first six stages of Marco Polo’s journey, completed in seven days, pass through fertile plains and many villages. Marco Polo refers to the intense cold, “which you can scarcely abide,” noting that it is not confined only to the mountains; he writes, “From the city of Kermán to this descent the cold in winter is very great,” meaning from Kermán nearly to Jíruft. The winters in Kermán itself are quite severe; from the town, the land rises steadily, and the mountain passes to the south range from 8,000 to 11,000 feet in elevation. These passes remain very cold up to March; in one case, there was even a frost at the beginning of June. The Sárdú Pass is lower than the others. The proper name is Sárdú, not Sardú from “sard,” meaning “cold.” Major Sykes (Persia, ch. xxiii.) reached the same conclusion: “In 1895, and again in 1900, I traveled partly to solve this problem and to establish the actual existence of Sárdu, which fittingly means the ‘Cold Country.’ I found a route that fits Marco’s conditions exactly—at Sarbizan, the Sárdu plateau ends in a high pass at 9,200 feet, with a very steep descent to the plain of Jíruft, Komádin being about 35 miles, or two days’ journey, from the top of the pass. Starting from Kermán, the stages would be: 1. Jupár (small town); 2. Bahrámjird (large village); 3. Gudar (village); 4. Ráin (small town)… The distance to the Sarbizan pass is 45 miles, or three desert stages, totaling 110 miles for the seven days. This remains the camel route today and matches Marco’s description perfectly… It seems, then, that this section of the journey is finally and satisfactorily settled; the route lies between the two chosen by Colonel Yule, which he wisely left open for consideration.”—H.C.]

In the summary of Major Smith’s itinerary we have provided, Polo’s city of *Camadi* does not appear. However, Major Smith has written to me that it is probably in “the ruined city whose traces I saw in the plain of Jíruft near Kerimabad. The name of the city now appears lost.” Nevertheless, the locals know it as the *City of Dakiánús*, according to Mr. Abbott, who visited the site. This name has parallels with our own “Arthur’s ovens” or “Merlin’s caves,” as across the Muslim world, ancient sites are commonly referred to by the legendary name *Dakianus* or the Emperor Decius, the tyrant who persecuted the Seven Sleepers. Abbott writes, “The location is an elevated part of the plain on the right bank of the Hali Rúd, littered with kiln-baked bricks and fragments of pottery and glass… After heavy rainfall, locals search through the ruins for stone ornaments, and rings and coins of gold, silver, and copper. Tradition says the city was destroyed by a flood long before Muhammad was born.”

Major P. Molesworth Sykes, in Recent Journeys in Persia (Geog. Journal, X. 1897), says: “Arriving in Rudbar, we headed north after leaving the Farman Farma to explore the site of Marco Polo’s ‘Camadi.’… We found a vast area covered with eight-inch square yellow bricks, but not a single wall remains to mark what was evidently a great city, known as Sher-i-Jiruft.”—H.C.] According to Abbott’s Journal, the actual distance from Bamm to the City of Dakianus is about 66 miles.

The name Reobarles, which Marco uses for the plain between the two descents, has caused much speculation. Marsden noted that “Rúdbár”—often used in Persia for river districts or areas with streams—would fit, especially since he didn’t know that there is a Rudbar district exactly where needed. The final syllable still needs explanation. I previously suggested it could be the Arabic *Laṣṣ*, or as Marco would have written, *Les*, meaning “robber.” Reobarles could then be Rudbar-i-Laṣṣ, “Robber’s River District.” Marco’s description supports this interpretation, and I thought it survived in the name of a river, mentioned by Abbott and Smith as *Rúdkhánah-i-Duzdi*, or “Thieves’ River,” which is also the name of a village and an old fort along the stream. However, this etymology, blending Persian and Arabic, was rejected by Sir H. Rawlinson and Mr. Khanikoff—both highly learned travelers—so the meaning of *Les* remains uncertain.

“The Jíruft and Rúdbár plains belong to the germsír (hot region). Dates, pistachios, and konars (Indian jujube, or ‘apples of Paradise’) are plentiful there. Reobarles is Rúdbár or Rüdbáris.” (Houtum-Schindler, l.c. 1881.)—H.C.]

We have already referred to Marco Polo’s statements about the intense cold on the pass marking the first descent. Notably, Edrisi also calls these the “Cold Mountains.” Mr. Abbott’s manuscript report mentions in this direction *Sardu*, said to be a cold region (as its name implies [see above,—H.C.]), which its inhabitants (Iliyáts) abandon for the warmer lowlands during winter. Only recently has the importance of this mountain chain become clear. In fact, the *existence* of the range running unbroken from near Kashán was first reported by Khanikoff in 1862. Major St. John has recently described the size of this range, which includes peaks that reach 15,000 feet, and extends for 550 miles before ending in a group of volcanic hills about 50 miles southeast of Bamm. Yet, this mountain chain is still practically ignored on our maps!

Marco’s description of the “Plain of Formosa” does not match the entire plain today, since it is barren near Bander Abbási. However, to the east around Minao—Old Hormuz—the fertility remains. Colonel Pelly writes: “The Minao district remains remarkably fertile for these regions. Pomegranates, oranges, pistachios, and many other fruits grow abundantly. The fertility is of course due to the river, and you can walk for miles along cultivated lanes and fields, some shaded from the sun.” Lieutenant Kempthorne, writing about this coast, observes: “Locals call the area the Paradise of Persia. It is indeed lush and abounds in orange groves and orchards with apples, pears, peaches, and apricots. Vineyards produce a fine grape, from which a wine called *amber-rosolli* was once made”—a name whose origin is unclear. *’Ambar-i-Rasúl*, “The Prophet’s Bouquet,” seems unlikely even for Persia, though even more sacred names are misused at Naples and on the Moselle. Sir H. Rawlinson suggests *’Ambar-’asali*, meaning “Honey Bouquet,” could be correct.

When Nearchus landed his fleet on the shore of *Harmozeia* at the mouth of the *Anamis* (the River of Minao), Arrian notes the country was welcoming and extremely fertile except for olives. The exhausted sailors found a pleasant haven from their labors. (Indica, 33; J.R.G.S. V. 274.)

**MARCO POLO’S ITINERARIES No. II.**
Kerman to Hormuz (B. I. Ch. 19.)![](assets/images/part-1/images/i114.jpg)

Approximate Section from Yazd to Hormuz

The name Formosa is likely just Rusticiano’s misreading of *Harmuza*, perhaps influenced by Marco’s descriptions of the plain’s beauty. We see a similar change in the old *Mafomet* for Mahomet, and the opposite shift in Spanish—from *hermosa* for *formosa*. Teixeira’s Chronicle says that the city of Hormuz was founded by Xa Mahamed Dranku, *i.e.* Shah Mahomed Dirhem-Ko, “in a plain of the same name.”

The claim in Ramusio that Hormuz was on an island is, I am sure, an addition by him or an earlier copyist.

When Nearchus’s fleet set out again from the mouth of the Anamis, the first day’s voyage passed a certain deserted, bushy island and then reached a large, inhabited one. The deserted island was called *Organa*; the large one where they anchored was *Oaracta* (Indica, 37). These names have not entirely vanished; the larger island is now Kishm or *Brakht*; the other is *Jerún*, perhaps originally *Gerún* or *Gerán* in Old Persian, once bushy but now deserted, although for three centuries it was the site of a city that became a poetic symbol of wealth and glory. There was a saying in the East: “Were the world a ring, Hormuz would be the jewel in it.”

See “Remarks on the Use of Wine and Distilled Liquors among the Mohammedans of Turkey and Persia,” in Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia, by Rev. Horatio Southgate, London, 1840, vol. ii.—H.C.]

See above.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i116.jpg)

The Double or Latin Rudder, as shown in the Navicella by Giotto. (From Eastlake.)

The people on the Gulf coast are often noted for their diet of dates and dried fish. P. della Valle says this is the only healthy diet there. Ibn Batuta notes that people in Hormuz would say: “*Khormá wa máhí lút-i-Pádshahi*,” meaning “Dates and fish make an Emperor’s dish!” A fish very similar to the Mediterranean tunny, in both appearance and habits, is a main target for fishers along the Sind and Mekran coasts, attracted by anchovy shoals—like its Mediterranean counterpart. (I.B. II. 231; Sir B. Frere.)

In fairness, it must be said that esteemed scholars like Professors Sprenger and Blochmann have found the original suggestion plausible. Mr. Blochmann even writes: “After years of studying a language, one develops a natural sense for anything un-idiomatic; but I must say I see nothing un-Persian in *rúdbár-i-duzd*, nor in *rúdbár-i-lass*… How common *lass* is you may judge from the fact that it’s in children’s reading-books.” Note: In Marco’s French, *Reobarles* is not pronounced like (French) *Charles*; every syllable is sounded. Interestingly, *Lăs*, the name of a small state near our Sind frontier, supposedly means, "in the local language," *a level plain*. (J. A. S. B. VIII. 195.) It is unclear what is meant by “the language of the country.” The chief is a Brahui; the people are Lumri or Numri Bilúchis, whom Tod considers descendants of the Jats.

*Spere*, bundles of spars, etc., dragged overboard.

#### CHAPTER XX. {.chapter}
Of the Wearisome and Desert Road that has now to be travelled.

When you leave the city of Kerman, the road for seven days is extremely wearisome; I will explain why. For the first three days, you find no water, or almost none. Whatever little you do encounter is bitter, greenish, and so salty that it is undrinkable; in fact, if you drink even a drop, it will make you purge at least ten times along the way. The same goes for the salt made from those streams; no one dares to use it, because of the severe purging it causes. So, it is necessary to bring water for the people to last those three days. As for the animals, they must drink the bad water I described—there is no alternative—and their great thirst compels them. But it purges them so violently that sometimes they die from it. Throughout these three days, you encounter no human settlement; it is all desert, extremely dry. There are not even wild beasts, for there is nothing for them to eat.

After those three days of desert,

You then enter another desert lasting four days; it is much like the previous stretch, except that you may see some wild asses. At the end of these four days of desert, the kingdom of Kerman ends and you reach another city called Cobinan.

#### CHAPTER XXI. {.chapter}
Concerning the City of Cobinan and the things that are made there.

Cobinan is a large town. The people there worship Muhammad. There is an abundance of iron, steel, and *Ondanique*, and they craft steel mirrors of remarkable size and beauty. They also produce both *Tutia* (a substance very good for the eyes) and *Spodium*; and here’s how the process works.

They have a vein of a particular kind of earth that has the needed quality. This earth is put into a large, blazing furnace, with an iron grate placed above the furnace. The smoke and moisture driven out of this earth stick to the iron grate, forming *Tutia*, while the slag left after burning is called *Spodium*.

#### CHAPTER XXII. {.chapter}
Of a certain Desert that lasts for eight days’ Journey.

When you leave the City of Cobinan, you enter another desert of extraordinary dryness, which continues for about eight days. Here, there are no fruits or trees to be seen, and the available water is bitter and unpleasant, so you must carry both food and water with you. The cattle are forced to drink the poor water, whether they want to or not, because of their great thirst. At the end of these eight days, you reach a province called Tonocain. This province contains many towns and villages and marks the northernmost border of Persia. It also includes a vast plain where you can find the Arbre Sol, which we Christians call the *Arbre Sec* (the Dry Tree). I will describe it for you. It is a tall and thick tree, with bark that is green on one side and white on the other; it produces a rough husk like that of a chestnut, but there is nothing inside. The wood is yellow, like boxwood, and very strong. There are no other trees near it or within a hundred miles, except on one side, where there are trees within about ten miles. The locals say that this is where the battle between Alexander and King Darius took place.

The towns and villages here have a great abundance of all good things, for the climate is extremely temperate, being neither very hot nor very cold. The people all worship Mahomet, and they are quite handsome—especially the women, who are exceptionally beautiful.

-----

The Angel gives Seth three kernels from the fruit of the Tree. Seth returns home and finds his father dead. He buries him in *the valley of Hebron*, and places the three kernels under his tongue. A triple shoot springs up—Cedar, Cypress, and Pine—symbolizing the three Persons of the Trinity. These three eventually unite into one stem. This tree endures in various forms and undergoes numerous adventures throughout Scripture history, always remaining connected to events, until it is discovered at the bottom of the Pool of Bethesda. There, it imparts the pool’s healing power and is ultimately taken to form the Cross on which Our Lord suffered.

The English version above comes from a 14th-century manuscript in the Bodleian, published by Dr. Morris in his collection of Legends of the Holy Rood. I have modernized the spelling of the lines quoted, without changing the actual words. The French passage is from a manuscript in the Vienna Library, extracts of which are given by Signor Adolfo Mussafia in his fascinating and scholarly tract (Sulla Legenda del Legno della Croce, Vienna, 1870). This work gives a comprehensive account of the foundational legend and its many variants. Reviewing these two works, especially Signor Mussafia’s, shows just how widely and abundantly this Christian mythology—such as it may fairly be called—was spread and multiplied. The referenced paper includes notices of between fifty and sixty different *works* (not merely manuscripts or copies), containing this legend in various European languages.

(Santarem, III. 380, II. 348; Ouseley, I. 359 *seqq.* and 391; Herodotus, VII. 31; Pliny, XII. 5; Chardin, VII. 410, VIII. 44 and 426; Fabricius, Vet. Test. Pseud. I. 80 *seqq.*; Cathay; Beal’s Fah-Hian, 72 and 78; Pèlerins Bouddhistes, II. 292; Della Valle, II. 276–277.)

It is said that the person who harmed the holy tree of Bostam perished that same day—a common belief regarding such *Trees of Grace*, as we have already observed in cases involving the sacred trees of Zoroaster and the Oak of Hebron. This superstition appears also in East Africa, where certain trees, revered with a mixture of superstition and respect (shown by driving in votive nails and tying rags), are known among European residents as *Devil Trees*. 138Burton recounts a case where an English merchant who cut down such a tree, along with four members of his household, died soon after—confirming the local superstition. This is the familiar story told by Ovid; the tree cut down by Erisichthon was a *Dirakht-i-Fazl*:
Chinar, or Oriental Plane.

Though the connection between Hamd Allah’s Dry Tree and our text is remarkable, I am not prepared to use this as definitive evidence for determining the geographical location of Marco’s *Arbre Sec*. Marco uses this title more than once to refer to the entire frontier of Khorasan, which could hardly have been a mere whim on his part. Perhaps, with more research into the historians or geographers of the Mongol period, an explanation will surface.

Meanwhile, I am inclined to place this landmark near Bostam or Damghan. While there’s no single overwhelming reason to do so, a combination of smaller ones support this view. These include the direction of the journey from Kermán through Kuh Banán; the apparent proximity of a major Ismailite fortress (to be discussed in the next chapter); the connection, noted more than once (see Prologue, ch. xviii. note 6, and Bk. IV. ch. v.), of the Arbre Sec with Ghazan Khan's headquarters as he guarded the mountain passes of which the main ones open out at Bostam; the fact that buildings constructed by Ghazan still stand at Bostam; and that local tradition places the decisive battle between Alexander and Darius here. Although no such battle occurred in the area, we do know Darius died near Hecatompylos. Some locate this city west of Bostam near Damghan, others east near Jah Jerm. Ferrier strongly argues for the immediate vicinity of Bostam. Firdusi, however, places the final battle on the borders of Kermán, and Darius' death within that province, but Polo could not have heard such a tradition.

I would also note that Bostam’s temperate climate is described by both Fraser and Ferrier in almost exactly the same language as Marco Polo uses.

The Chinar thrives in Khorasan (as much as any tree can be said to *abound* in Persia), and even appears in the Oases of Tun-o-Kain wherever water is present. Travellers cited by Ritter mention enormous and ancient Chinars at Shahrúd near Bostam, at Meyomid, and at Mehr west of Sabzawar, with the latter roots supposedly dating back to Naoshirwan’s day (7th century). There is even a town northwest of Meshid called *Chinárán*, “The Planes.” Della Valle, incidentally, refers to Tehran as “la città dei platani.”

The following note by De Sacy about the Chinar, already quoted by Marsden, may not directly relate to the term Arbre Sec, but is too interesting to omit: “Its barrenness seems to have become proverbial among certain Eastern peoples. For among a collection of moral sentences attributed to the Sabaeans or Christians of St. John … is the following: ‘The vainglorious man is like a showy Plane Tree, rich in branches but producing nothing and giving his owner no fruit.’” Ovid’s Walnut levels the same criticism of barrenness against the Plane Tree:

I’ll close with another passage from Khanikoff, although it specifically relates to what I believe is a mistaken reading (*Arbre Seul*): “Where the Chinar grows spontaneously or stands in the center of a broad, bare plain, even today this tree is held in exceptional veneration, and the spot often comes to be called ‘The Place of the Solitary Tree.’” (J. R. G. S. XXIX. 345; Ferrier, 69–76; Fraser, 343; Ritter, VIII. 332, XI. 512 *seqq.*; Della Valle, I. 703; De Sacy’s Abdallatif; Khanikoff, Not.)

“Daz dritte Dier was ein Lebarte
Vier arin Vederich her havite;
Der beceichnote den Criechiskin Alexanderin,
Der mit vier Herin vür aftir Landin,
Unz her die Werilt einde,
Bi guldinin Siulin bikante.
In India her die Wusti durchbrach,
*Mit zwein Boumin her sich da gesprach*,” etc.

It is curious how close the name *EmaÅ«sae* is to the East African *Mwezi*; and perhaps even more curious that “the elders of U-nya-Mwezi (‘the Land of the Moon’) declare that their patriarchal ancestor became, after death, the first Tree and provided shade to his children and descendants. According to the Arabs, people still make pilgrimages to a holy tree, and believe that anyone who commits sacrilege by breaking off a twig will be struck by sudden and mysterious death.” (Burton in F. R. G. S. XXIX. 167–168.)

“The River *Buemar*, in the farthest forests of India,” appears in a version of Alexander’s Letter to Aristotle, though I do not find it in Müller’s edition. (See Zacher’s Pseudo-Callisthenes.) Perhaps it is the Ab-i-Ámú!

It is worth mentioning that there might be a mistake in Paulin Paris’s *reference*; at least I could not find the *Arbre Sec* in the manuscript he cites, nor in the famous Bodleian Alexander, which seems to present the same version of the story.

Trees.

Opobalsamum.

A recent traveler in China has given a nearly identical account of sacred trees in Shansi. Many bore large-lettered inscriptions. “If you pray, you will certainly be heard.”—Rev. A. Williamson, Journeys in N. China, I. 163, which includes an illustration of such a tree near Taiyuanfu. (See that work, I. ch. xvi.) Mr. Williamson describes a revered ancient acacia, known as the Acacia of the T’ang, implying it dates from that dynasty (7th to 10th century). It is famed for its healing powers, and every inch of its surface was crowded with votive tablets and inscriptions. (*Ibid.* 303.)

#### CHAPTER XXIII. {.chapter}
Concerning the Old Man of the Mountain.

Mulehet is a country where the Old Man of the Mountain once lived; the name means “*Place of the Aram*.” I will tell you his full history as Marco Polo learned it, having heard it from several natives of that area.

The Old Man was known in their language as Aloadin. He had a certain valley between two mountains enclosed, turning it into a garden—one of the largest and most beautiful ever seen, filled with every kind of fruit. Within it, he built pavilions and palaces so elegant and splendid that they were covered in gilding and exquisite paintings. Streams flowed freely with wine, milk, honey, and water. There were also many ladies and the most beautiful maidens in the world, skilled at playing all sorts of instruments, singing sweetly, and dancing most delightfully. The Old Man wanted his followers to believe this garden was truly Paradise. He designed it based on the description Mahommet gave of Paradise: a beautiful garden with streams of wine, milk, honey, and water, and filled with lovely women for the enjoyment of its inhabitants. The Saracens of those regions truly believed it *was* Paradise!

No one could enter the Garden except those he intended to make his Ashishin. There was a fortress at the entrance, strong enough to withstand the whole world, and no other way in existed. He kept at his court several of the country’s youths, aged between 12 and 20, who had an interest in soldiering. To them, he would tell tales of Paradise, just as Mahommet had, and they believed him as the Saracens believed in Mahommet. Then he would let them into his garden, some four, six, or ten at a time, first making them drink a potion that put them into a deep sleep, after which they were carried inside. So when they awoke, they found themselves in the Garden.

Elliot, II. 290.

#### CHAPTER XXIV. {.chapter}
How the Old Man Used to Train His Assassins.

So, when they awoke and found themselves in such a beautiful place, they truly believed it was Paradise. The ladies and damsels entertained them as much as they wished, so the young men had everything they desired; and, of their own free will, they would never have wanted to leave.

Now, this Prince whom we call the Old Man kept his Court in grand and noble style, and made those simple hill people around him firmly believe that he was a great Prophet. When he wanted to send one of his *Ashishin* on a mission, he would have the potion I mentioned given to one of the youths in the garden, and then have him carried into his Palace. So, when the young man woke, he found himself in the Castle, no longer in Paradise; this did not please him. He was then brought to the Old Man’s presence and bowed deeply, truly believing he was before a real Prophet. The Prince would ask where he had come from, and he would reply that he came from Paradise—and that it was exactly as Mahomet had described it in the Law. This, of course, gave the others who had not been admitted a strong desire to enter there as well.

So, when the Old Man wanted any Prince killed, he would say to such a youth: “Go and kill So-and-So; and when you return, my Angels will bring you back to Paradise. And should you die, even then I will send my Angels to carry you back to Paradise.” In this way, he made them believe; so there was no order he gave that they would not face any danger to carry out, because of their great desire to return to his Paradise. And in this way, the Old Man got his people to assassinate anyone he wished to remove. Also, because of the great fear he inspired in all Princes, they became his tributaries so he would remain at peace and friendship with them.

I should also mention that the Old Man had certain others under him, who copied his methods and acted in exactly the same way. One of these was sent into the territory of Damascus, and the other into Kurdistan.

#### CHAPTER XXV. {.chapter}
How the Old Man came to His End.

Now it came to pass, in the year of our Lord's Incarnation, 1252, that Alaü, the Lord of the Tartars of the Levant, heard of the great crimes of the Old Man and decided to put an end to him. So he sent one of his Barons with a great army to that castle, and they besieged it for three years; but they could not take it, so strong was its defense. In fact, if they had had sufficient food inside, the castle would never have been taken. But after three years under siege, they ran out of provisions and were captured. The Old Man was put to death along with all his men, and the castle with its Garden of Paradise was leveled to the ground. Since that time, he has had no successor, and so all his villainies came to an end.

Now let us return to our journey.

#### CHAPTER XXVI. {.chapter}
Concerning the City of Sapurgan.

After leaving the Castle, you ride through fine plains and beautiful valleys, and over attractive hillsides with excellent pastures and abundant fruits and all other produce. Armies camp here gladly because of the plenty available. This kind of countryside extends for six days’ journey and contains many towns and villages where the people are followers of Mahomet. Occasionally, you encounter a stretch of desert fifty or sixty miles long, or less, where you find no water and must carry it with you. The animals endure without drinking until you cross the desert area and reach water again.

So, after traveling for six days as described, you reach a city called Sapurgan. It has abundance of everything, but especially produces the finest melons in the world. They preserve them by peeling them into strips and drying them in the sun. When dried, they are sweeter than honey and are sent for sale across the country. There is also plenty of game here, both birds and animals.

#### CHAPTER XXVII. {.chapter}
Of the City of Balc.

Balc is a noble and great city, though it was even larger in earlier times. However, the Tartars and other nations have seriously ravaged and destroyed it. There were once many fine marble palaces and buildings, and the ruins of these can still be seen. The people of the city say that it was here that Alexander married the daughter of Darius.

Here, you should know, is the end of the empire of the Tartar Lord of the Levant. This city also marks the edge of Persia in the direction between east and northeast.

Now, let us leave this city, and I will tell you about another country called Dogana.

When you leave the city I have just described, you travel for about 12 days toward the northeast and east, without finding any inhabited places. The people have all taken refuge in mountain strongholds, because of bandits and armies that harassed them. There is plenty of water along the route, and an abundance of game; there are also lions. You cannot get any provisions on this route and must carry everything you need with you for these 12 days.

Notably, Elphinstone distinguishes between the general use of Dehgán or Dehkán and the name Deggán, which he applies to a tribe “once spread over the northeast of Afghanistan, but now as a separate group only in Kunar and Laghman.”

#### CHAPTER XXVIII. {.chapter}
Of Taican, and the Mountains of Salt. Also of the Province of Casem.

After those twelve days' journey, you come to a fortified place called Taican, where there is a large grain market. It's a fine place, and the mountains you see to the south are entirely made of salt. People from all the surrounding countries, from as far as thirty days' journey away, come to collect this salt, which is considered the best in the world and is so hard it can only be broken with iron picks. There is so much of it that it could supply the whole world forever.

When you leave this town and travel three more days in a direction between northeast and east, you come upon many fine areas full of vineyards and other fruits, with a good number of settlements, and everything is very affordable. The people are followers of Mahommet, and are an unruly and violent people whose greatest pleasure is found in the wine shop. For they have excellent wine (though it is boiled), and they are notorious drinkers; in truth, they are always getting drunk. They wear nothing on their heads except a cord, about ten palms long, twisted around it. They are excellent hunters and catch a lot of game; in fact, they wear nothing but the skins of the animals they hunt, making both coats and shoes from them. Indeed, all of them know the art of preparing skins for these purposes.

After traveling those three days, you reach a town called Casem, which is governed by a count. His other cities and villages are in the hills, but through this town flows a river of considerable size. There are many porcupines in this area, and very large ones too. When hunted with dogs, several porcupines will gather together and huddle closely, shooting their quills at the dogs, who often receive serious wounds as a result.

This town of Casem is the chief place of a very large province, also called Casem. The people there have their own unique language. The peasants who herd cattle live in the mountains and make their homes in caves, which provide them with excellent and spacious dwellings, and are easy to build, since the hills are made of earth.

After leaving the town of Casem, you travel for three days without finding a single settlement or anything to eat or drink, so you must carry everything you need with you. At the end of those three days, you reach a province called Badashan, which we will now describe.

Since published in J. K. G. S. vol. xlii.

Wilford, writing at the end of the 18th century, refers to Faizabad as “the new capital of Badakhshan, built near the site of the old one.” The Chinese map (*see* J. R. G. S. vol. xlii.) places the city of *Badakhshan* to the east of Faizabad. Faiz Bakhsh, in an unpublished paper, mentions a tradition that Lady Zobeidah, beloved by English children, the daughter of Al-Mansúr and wife of Ar-Rashid, loved to spend spring at Jaúzgún, and built a palace there, “the ruins of which are still visible.”

#### CHAPTER XXIX. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Badashan.

Badashan is a province inhabited by people who follow the teachings of Mahomet and speak their own distinct language. It forms a very large kingdom, with hereditary royalty. All those of the royal blood are descended from King Alexander and the daughter of King Darius, who was ruler of the vast Persian Empire. All these kings call themselves Zulcarniain in the Saracen tongue, which means *Alexander*; this is done to honor Alexander the Great.

This province is famous for its fine and valuable gems known as Balas Rubies. These are found in certain rocks among the mountains, and to find them, people dig large caves underground, much like miners do for silver. There is only one specific mountain that produces them, called Syghinan. The stones are extracted solely on the king’s behalf; no one else is permitted to dig in that mountain, with penalties including loss of life and property. Nor can anyone take the stones out of the kingdom unless allowed. The king collects them all, sending them to other kings as tribute or as gifts, and only the ones he chooses may be sold. He does this to ensure the Balas Rubies remain highly valued; if everyone were allowed to dig, there would be so many that the world would be flooded with them, making them worthless. That is why he is so strict and allows so few to be taken out.

In the same country, there is another mountain where the world's finest azure is found, mined from a vein like silver. Other mountains in the region also contain a great deal of silver ore, making the country very wealthy; but, it must be said, also very cold. Many excellent horses, known for their speed, are bred here. These horses are never shod, even though they are used constantly in mountainous areas and on very rough roads. [They move quickly even down steep slopes where other horses could not. Messer Marco was told that, not long ago, the province had a breed of horses descended from Alexander's Bucephalus, all of which were born with a unique mark on their forehead. This breed was owned entirely by the king's uncle; but after he refused to provide any to the king, he was put to death. His widow then, out of spite, destroyed the whole breed, which is now extinct.]

The mountains of this region also provide Saker falcons of excellent flight, as well as plenty of Lanners. There is a great abundance of animals and birds for hunting. Good wheat grows here, and also barley without husk. They do not have olive oil, but make oil from sesamé and also from walnuts.

The mountains are so high that it is a full day's hard work, from morning until night, to reach the top. Once at the summit, you find a broad plain with plenty of grass, trees, and pure springs of water streaming down rocks and ravines. In those brooks are trout and many other fine fish. The air there is so clean and healthy that people living in the lower towns, valleys, or plains, when affected by fever or any illness, go up into the hills; and after staying two or three days, they recover completely due to the healthiness of the air. Messer Marco himself experienced this: after being ill for nearly a year in that region, he was advised to visit the mountain, did so, and quickly recovered his health.]![](assets/images/part-1/images/i159.jpg)

Ancient Silver Patera of debased Greek art, formerly in the possession of the Princes of Badakhshan, now in the India Museum.

This kingdom has many narrow and perilous passes, so difficult to force that the people do not fear invasion. Their towns and villages are built on high hills and in very strong positions. The people are excellent archers and keen hunters; most depend on wearing animal skins for clothing because woven fabrics are very costly there. The great ladies, however, dress in fabrics, and here is their style of dress: all wear drawers made of cotton cloth, using as much as 60, 80, or even 100 ells of fabric in making them. They do this to make themselves appear large in the hips, as the men of the region consider this a great beauty in women.

#### CHAPTER XXX. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Pashai

You should know that ten days’ journey south of Badakhshan is a province called Pashai. The people there have a unique language and are Idolaters, with brown skin. They are highly skilled in sorcery and the darker arts. The men wear gold and silver earrings and brooches set with stones and pearls. They are a troublesome and cunning people; they live on meat and rice. Their land is very hot.

Now let’s continue and talk about another country, seven days’ journey from this one to the southeast, called Keshimur.

The Kafir dialect that Mr. Trumpp documented includes these forms of the verb “to be” in the present tense:— *Ei sÅ­m*, *TÅ­ sis*, *siga sĕ*; *Ima sÄ­mÄ­s*, *WÄ­ sik*, *Sigĕ sin*.

The Tabakát-i-Násiri (Elliot, II. 317) mentions the Highlands of *Pasha-Afroz*, but does not identify their exact location.

#### CHAPTER XXXI. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Keshimur.

Keshimur is also a province inhabited by people who are idolaters and have their own distinct language. They are said to have a remarkable knowledge of magical arts, so much so that they can make their idols speak. With their sorceries, they can bring about changes in weather, produce darkness, and perform a variety of feats so extraordinary that no one would believe them without seeing them firsthand. In fact, this region is considered the original source from which idolatry spread to other lands.

Heading further in this direction, you would eventually come to the Sea of India.

The men are brown and slender, while the women, considering them as brunettes, are very beautiful. The people's diet includes meat, milk, and rice. The climate is pleasantly moderate, being neither too hot nor too cold. There are plenty of towns and villages, as well as forests, deserts, and strong mountain passes. As a result, the inhabitants have no fear of attack, maintain their independence, and are ruled by their own king, who administers justice.

The country is home to eremites (in the local tradition), who live in seclusion and practice great abstinence in eating and drinking. They observe strict chastity and abstain from all sins forbidden by their religion, so they are regarded by their people as very holy. They also live to a remarkable age.

There are also numerous abbeys and monasteries for idolaters.  The coral imported from our parts of the world sells better here than anywhere else.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i167.jpg)

Ancient Buddhist Temple at Pandrethan in Kashmir.

Now we will leave this country and go no further in this direction; for if we did, we would enter India, and I do not wish to do so yet. On our return journey, I plan to tell you about India in proper order. So, let us return to Badashan, for that is the only way to continue our journey.

#### CHAPTER XXXII. {.chapter}
Of the Great River of Badashan.

When you leave Badashan, you travel for twelve days between east and northeast, following a river that runs through territory owned by a brother of the Prince of Badashan. This area contains many towns, villages, and scattered dwellings. The people are Muslims and are brave in war. At the end of those twelve days you reach a province that is not very large—extending no more than three days’ journey in any direction—which is called Vokhan. The people worship Mahomet and have a unique language. They are courageous soldiers, and their chief is called None, which means *Count*. They are vassals of the Prince of Badashan.

There are many wild animals of all kinds in this region. When you leave this small country and travel three more days to the northeast, still among mountains, you reach such a height that it is said to be the highest place in the world! When you get to this elevation, you will find [a great lake between two mountains, and from it] a fine river flows through a plain covered with the richest pasture in the world; in fact, a thin beast will grow fat to your heart’s content in just ten days. There are many wild animals, including very large wild sheep with horns six palms long. Shepherds use these horns to make large bowls for eating and also to build enclosures for their cattle at night. [Marco Polo was also told that there are many wolves, which kill many of those wild sheep. As a result, large quantities of their horns and bones are found and are made into great heaps along the roadside to guide travelers when there is snow on the ground.]

The plain is called Pamier. You ride across it for twelve days, finding nothing but a barren desert with no habitations or greenery, so travelers must bring everything they need. The region is so high and cold that not even birds are seen flying. I must also note that because of the intense cold, fire does not burn as brightly or provide as much heat as usual, nor does it cook food as effectively.

If we continue our journey toward the east-northeast, we travel for a good forty days, constantly crossing mountains and hills, or passing through valleys and rivers and stretches of wilderness. Throughout this journey, you find no sign of human habitation or any green thing and must bring along whatever you require. This region is called Bolor. The people live high up in the mountains and are wild pagans, surviving by hunting and wearing the skins of animals. They truly are a wicked race.

“Yet this barren and inaccessible upland, with its scant, wild population, has appeared in Eastern history and geography from very early on, and recently became the subject of formal discussions between two major European powers, making its name, for a few weeks at least, well known in London. This is a remarkable twist in the course of modern history. We see the Slav and the Englishman—representatives of two great Aryan peoples, long separated by time and space from their common point of origin—now meeting again at the Pamirs, which so many traditions and theories identify as the cradle of their earliest ancestors, there by mutual agreement to fix boundaries for their advancement.” (Quarterly Review, April, 1873.)

Ibn Haukal considered Wakhán an Indian region. It is an odd coincidence (and likely nothing more) that *Nono* in the Garo language of Eastern Bengal means “a younger brother.” (J.A.S.B. XXII. 153, XVIII. 208.)

According to Colonel Tod, the Hindu bard Chand mentions “Pamer, chief of mountains.” (I..) But one can admire and respect Colonel Tod without necessarily trusting such unverified quotations.

Usually written *Polii*, which is incorrect.

#### CHAPTER XXXIII. {.chapter}
Of the Kingdom of Cascar.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i180.jpg)

Head of a Native of Kashgar.

Cascar is a region situated between the northeast and east. It was once a kingdom, but is now under the rule of the Great Kaan. The people there follow the religion of Mahomet. There are many towns and villages, but the largest and most impressive is Cascar itself. The residents make their living through trade and skilled crafts; they have beautiful gardens, vineyards, and fine estates, and they produce a large amount of cotton. Many merchants from this country travel widely for trade. The people are generally considered to be a miserly and unhappy group, and their eating and drinking habits are poor. There are also many Nestorian Christians in the region, with their own churches. The inhabitants have their own distinct language, and the territory stretches for five days’ journey.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i181.jpg)

View of Kashgar. (From Shaw’s “Tartary.”)

#### CHAPTER XXXIV. {.chapter}
Of the Great City of Samarkand.

Samarkand is a large and noble city to the northwest, inhabited by both Christians and Saracens, all subject to the Great Kaan’s nephew, named Caidou. However, he is in bitter enmity with the Kaan. Let me tell you of a great marvel that happened in this city.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i184.jpg)

View of Samarcand. (From a sketch by Mr. Ivanoff.)

“Samarcan est une grandisme cité et noble.”

Not long ago, Sigatay, the own brother of the Great Kaan, who ruled over this country and many others, became a Christian. The Christians rejoiced greatly at this and built a great church in the city, in honor of John the Baptist, and the church was named after him. They took a very fine stone, which had belonged to the Saracens, and placed it as the base of a column in the middle of the church, supporting the roof. However, Sigatay died. The Saracens, still resentful about the stone that had been theirs and was now set up in the Christians’ church, saw their chance when the Prince died. They said amongst themselves that now was the time to reclaim their stone, by any means necessary. They could easily do so, for they outnumbered the Christians ten to one. So they gathered together, went to the church, and demanded their stone back. The Christians admitted that it was indeed theirs but offered to pay a large sum of money to keep the stone. The Saracens, however, refused, saying they would never give up the stone for anything. The argument grew so heated that the Prince heard about it and ordered the Christians either to satisfy the Saracens with money or give up the stone; he allowed them three days to do one or the other.

What more can I say? The Saracens refused to let the stone remain where it was, purely to spite the Christians, knowing well that if the stone was removed, the church would likely collapse. The Christians were in great distress and didn’t know what to do. As their best recourse, they prayed earnestly to Jesus Christ to consider their plight, that the holy church should not fall and the name of its Patron Saint, John the Baptist, not be disgraced by its ruin. So when the day set by the Prince arrived, they went to the church early in the morning, and to their amazement, they found the stone had been removed from beneath the column; the base of the column was unsupported, yet it still bore the load as sturdily as before! There was a gap of three palms between the base of the column and the ground. So the Saracens took back their stone, gaining little satisfaction from it. It was a glorious miracle, and indeed remains so, for the column still stands thus and will do so as long as God wills.

Now let us leave this and continue our journey.

#### CHAPTER XXXV. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Yarcan.

Yarcan is a province five days’ journey in extent. The people follow the Law of Mahomet, but there are also Nestorian and Jacobite Christians. They too are subject to the same Prince I mentioned before, the Great Kaan’s nephew. They have plenty of everything,  As there is nothing else noteworthy, we may move on.

#### CHAPTER XXXVI. {.chapter}
Of a Province called Cotan.

Cotan is a province located between the north-east and east, and is eight days’ journey in length. The people are subjects of the Great Kaan, and all are followers of Mahommet. The country contains many towns and villages, but Cotan, the capital, is the noblest of all and gives its name to the kingdom. Everything is found there in abundance, including plentiful cotton, . The people have vineyards, gardens, and estates. They live by trade and manufacturing, and are not soldiers.

#### CHAPTER XXXVII. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Pein.

Pein is a province that takes five days to cross, lying between east and northeast. The people there are followers of Mahomet and are subjects of the Great Kaan. There are many towns and villages, but the principal one is Pein, which is the capital of the kingdom. The province has rivers where large quantities of jasper and chalcedony are found. The people enjoy an abundance of all kinds of produce, including cotton. Their livelihood is based on manufacturing and trade. However, they have a custom I must mention: If a woman's husband goes away on a journey and is gone for more than 20 days, as soon as that period has passed, the woman is allowed to marry another man, and the husband, upon his return, is also free to marry whomever he chooses.

Let me also tell you that all the provinces I have described, from Cascar onwards, and those I will mention up to the city of Lop, are part of Great Turkey.

#### CHAPTER XXXVIII. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Charchan.

Charchan is a province of Great Turkey, stretching between northeast and east. The inhabitants worship Mahomet. There are many towns and villages, and the kingdom's main city is also called Charchan. The province contains rivers that carry down jasper and chalcedony, which are sold in Cathay at high prices. The whole province and the road from Pein are sandy, and much of the water you find is bitter and undrinkable. However, in some places you find fresh, sweet water. If an army enters the region, the people will flee two or three days’ journey into the sandy wilderness with their wives, children, and livestock. Knowing where water is available, they can survive there with their animals while remaining hidden, since the wind quickly erases their tracks with sand.

When you leave Charchan, you journey five days through the sands, finding only bitter, bad water, until you reach a place with sweet water. Next, I will tell you about a province called Lop, home to a city also named Lop, which you reach after those five days. It stands at the threshold of the great desert, and it is here that travelers rest before setting out into the wilderness.

#### CHAPTER XXXIX. {.chapter}
Of the City of Lop and the Great Desert.

Lop is a large town at the edge of the Desert, which is called the Desert of Lop, and is situated to the east and northeast. It belongs to the Great Kaan, and the people worship Mahomet. Now, those who plan to cross the Desert rest for a week in this town to refresh themselves and their cattle; afterwards, they prepare for the journey by taking with them a month's supply for both people and beasts. Upon leaving this city, they enter the Desert.

The length of this Desert is so great that it is said it would take a year or more to ride from one end to the other. Here, where its breadth is narrowest, it takes a month to cross. It is entirely made up of hills and valleys of sand, with nothing to eat anywhere. After riding for a day and a night, you find fresh water—perhaps enough for about 50 or 100 people and their animals, but not more. Across the Desert, you will find water in a similar manner, that is to say, in about 28 places in total you can find good water, but never in large quantities; and in four places you can find brackish water.

There are no animals, as there is nothing for them to eat. But there is a remarkable thing reported about this Desert: when travelers move by night, and one of them happens to lag behind, fall asleep, or otherwise fall back, when he tries to rejoin his company he will hear spirits talking and will think they are his own companions. Sometimes these spirits call him by name; thus, a traveler is often lured away and never rejoins his party. In this way, many have perished. [Sometimes these lost travelers hear what sounds like the march and noise of a great caravan of people, away from the real road, and thinking it is their company, follow the sound; by morning they find they have been deceived and are in a dire situation.] Even during the day, these spirits can be heard talking. Sometimes, you hear the sound of various musical instruments, and more often, the sound of drums. [Therefore, when making this journey, travelers customarily keep close together. All the animals also wear bells around their necks, so they cannot easily stray. At sleeping time, a signal is put up to indicate the direction of the next march.]

And this is how the Desert is crossed.

#### CHAPTER XL. {.chapter}
Concerning the Great Province of Tangut.

After you have traveled thirty days through the desert, as I have described, you come to a city called Sachiu, lying between north-east and east; it belongs to the Great Kaan and is in a province called Tangut. Most of the people are idolaters, but there are also some Nestorian Christians and some Saracens. The idolaters have a unique language, and are not traders, but live off their agriculture. They have many abbeys and temples full of idols of various forms, to which they pay great honor and reverence, worshipping them and making sacrifices with elaborate ceremonies. For example, families with children will raise a sheep in honor of the idol, and at the New Year or on the day of the Idol’s Feast, they will take their children and the sheep before the idol with great ceremony. Then they have the sheep slaughtered and cooked, and once again present it before the idol with similar reverence, leaving it there while they recite the offices of their worship and pray for the idol's blessing on their children. And, if you will believe them, the idol consumes the food set before it! After these ceremonies, they take up the meat and bring it home, then gather all their relatives to eat it in great festivity . After eating, they carefully collect the remaining bones and store them in a chest.

You should know that all the idolaters in the world burn their dead. When they are going to take a body to be burned, the family builds a wooden house along the way to the site and decorates it with silk and gold cloths. As the body passes by this building, they pause and set before it wine, meat, and other foods, believing that the deceased will receive the same hospitality in the next world. All the musicians in the town play before the body; and when it reaches the burning-place, the relatives are prepared with figures cut out of parchment and paper in the shapes of men, horses, and camels, as well as round pieces of paper resembling gold coins, and all these are burned along with the corpse. For they say that in the next world, the dead will have slaves, cattle, and money equal to the amount of such paper items burned with them.

But they never burn their dead until they have . Until that day arrives, they keep the body, so it is sometimes six months or more before the burning takes place.

The way they keep the body at home is this: They make a coffin first, at least a handspan thick, very well joined and neatly painted. This is filled with camphor and spices to prevent decay , then covered with a fine cloth. Every day while the body is kept, they set a table with food before it; they claim that the soul comes to eat and drink, so they leave the food there as long as it would take a living person to eat. This they do daily. And stranger still, sometimes the soothsayers tell them it is bad luck to remove the corpse through the door, so they break a hole in the wall and carry it out that way when it is time for burning. And I assure you, these are the practices of all the idolaters in those regions.

However, let us move on, and I will tell you about another city, which lies to the north-west at the edge of the desert.

M. Bonin visited these caves in 1899, calling them the “Grottoes of a Thousand Buddhas” (*Tsien Fo tung*). (La Géographie, 15th March, 1901.) He found a stele dated 1348 with a Buddhist prayer in six scripts, like the inscription at Kiu Yung Kwan. (Rev. Hist. des Religions, 1901.)—H. C.

#### CHAPTER XLI. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Camul.

Camul is a province which was once a kingdom. It contains many towns and villages, but the main city is also called Camul. The province is situated between two deserts; on one side is the Great Desert of Lop, and on the other is a smaller desert, three days' journey across. The people are all idolaters and speak their own unique language. They live off the land, which provides them plenty, and they sell their produce to travelers. The people here are easygoing, caring only for playing, singing, dancing, and enjoying themselves.

When a foreigner comes to stay at one of their homes, the host is delighted and asks his wife to put herself entirely at the guest’s disposal. The husband then removes himself and does not return until the guest has left. The guest may stay with the wife as long as he wishes, and the husband feels no shame about this; in fact, he considers it an honor. In this way, all the men of this province willingly allow their wives such liberties. The women are described as attractive and free-spirited.

During the reign of Mangu Kaan, when he ruled this province, he learned of this custom. He then issued an order forbidding the practice under severe penalties . The people were greatly upset by this order.  So they gathered together and sent a valuable gift to their lord, asking him kindly to let them keep the custom their ancestors had passed down. They insisted that all their good fortune from their gods was due to this practice, and without it, they did not see how they could survive. When the Prince heard their petition, his reply was, “Since you must keep your shame, keep it then,” 211and so he allowed them to maintain their questionable custom. They have always continued it and do so to this day.

Let us now leave Camul, and I will tell you about another province, which lies between the northwest and the north, and also belongs to the Great Kaan.

#### CHAPTER XLII. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Chingintalas.

Chingintalas is another province on the edge of the Desert, lying between northwest and north. It covers a distance of sixteen days’ journey and belongs to the Great Kaan. The province has many towns and villages, and its people are of three different races—Idolaters, Saracens, and some Nestorian Christians. At the northern extremity of this province, there is a mountain with excellent veins of steel and ondanique. You should know that in the same mountain there is also a vein of the substance from which Salamander is produced. For the actual truth is that the Salamander is not an animal, as people in our part of the world believe, but rather a substance found in the earth. I will explain about it.

Anyone should understand that no animal can naturally live in fire, since every animal is composed of all four elements. Now, I, Marco Polo, had a Turkish acquaintance named Zurficar, a very clever man. This Turk told Messer Marco Polo that he had spent three years in that region on behalf of the Great Kaan to acquire those Salamanders for him. He described how they obtained them by digging into the mountain until they found a certain vein. The substance from this vein was extracted and crushed, which separated into fibers resembling wool, which they spread out to dry. When dry, these fibers were pounded in a large copper mortar, then washed to remove all the earth, leaving only the wool-like fibers. They were then spun and made into napkins. When first made, these napkins are not very white, but when put into the fire for a while, they come out as white as snow. And so, whenever they become dirty, they are cleaned and whitened by placing them in the fire.

This is the plain truth about the Salamander, and the local people all confirm the same thing. Any other explanation is pure fable. I may add that they have in Rome a napkin made of this material, which the Grand Kaan sent to the Pope as a wrapper for the Holy Sudarium of Jesus Christ.

We will now leave this subject, and I will continue my account of the lands lying in the direction between northeast and east.

#### CHAPTER XLIII. {.chapter}
Of the Province of Sukchur.

After leaving the province previously discussed, you travel for ten days between north-east and east, and throughout this journey you find almost no human habitation, or very few, so there is nothing for our book to report.

At the end of those ten days, you reach another province called Sukchur, where there are numerous towns and villages. The chief city is named Sukchu. The population is made up of both Christians and Idolaters, and all are subject to the Great Kaan.

The great general province encompassing these three provinces is called Tangut.

All over the mountains of this province, rhubarb grows in abundance, attracting merchants who come to buy it and transport it all over the world.  The people make their living by farming, and there is little trade.

#### CHAPTER XLIV. {.chapter}
Of the City of Campichu.

Campichu is also a city in Tangut, and it’s a very large and distinguished city. In fact, it serves as the capital and seat of government for the entire province of Tangut. The inhabitants are made up of Idolaters, Saracens, and Christians. The Christians have three very beautiful churches in the city, while the Idolaters have many temples and abbeys in their own style. These temples contain a huge number of idols, both large and small. Some of the larger idols reach about ten paces in length; some are made of wood, others of clay, and still others of stone. All are highly polished and then coated with gold. The great idols I mention lie outstretched. Surrounding these are other sizable figures, posed as if worshipping and paying respect to the main idols.

Now, as I have not yet described the customs of these Idolaters, I will proceed to do so now.

You should know that among them there are certain religious recluses who live more virtuously than the rest. These abstain entirely from sexual indulgence, though they do not consider it a mortal sin; however, if anyone commits a crime against nature, they sentence him to death. They have a religious calendar, much like we do, and they keep five special days each month. On these five days, they absolutely abstain from slaughtering animals or eating meat of any kind. On these days, they also practice much greater abstinence than usual.

In this society, a man may have as many as thirty wives, more or less, depending on what he can afford; each person has wives in proportion to his wealth and resources. However, the first wife is always given the greatest respect. Men provide their wives with cattle, servants, and money, according to their means. If a man becomes displeased with any of his wives, he simply sends her away and finds another. They marry their cousins and their fathers’ widows (though never their own mother), accepting practices we would consider grievous sins—indeed, they live much like animals in this regard.

Messer Maffeo and Messer Marco Polo spent a whole year in this city while on a mission.

Now we will leave this city and tell you about other provinces to the north, as our journey will take us sixty days in that direction.

#### CHAPTER XLV. {.chapter}
Of the City of Etzina.

When you leave the city of Campichu, you travel for twelve days and then reach a city called Etzina, which is to the north, on the edge of the Sandy Desert; it belongs to the Province of Tangut. The people are idolaters, and have plenty of camels and cattle. The region also produces many fine falcons, both Sakers and Lanners. The inhabitants live by farming and raising livestock, as there is no trade. 224At this city, you must make sure to stock up on food for forty days, because after leaving Etzina, you enter a desert that stretches for a forty-day journey to the north, with no settlements or rest stops along the way. In the summer, you might encounter people, but in winter the cold is too intense. You also run across wild animals—since there are some small pine woods here and there—and many wild asses. After you have completed these forty days across the desert, you come to a certain province lying to the north, whose name you will soon hear.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i224.jpg)

Wild Ass of Mongolia.

#### CHAPTER XLVI. {.chapter}
Of the City of Caracoron.

Caracoron is a city about three miles in circumference.  It is the first city the Tartars gained after leaving their own country. Now I will tell you how they first acquired power and expanded their dominion across the world.

Originally, the Tartars lived in the north, on the borders of Chorcha. Their country was made up of great plains; there were no towns or villages, but excellent pasture-lands, with large rivers and many lakes. In short, it was a very fine and extensive region. But there was no sovereign ruling there. However, they did pay taxes and tribute to a great prince called Unc Can in their language, whom we know as Prester John, the same Prester John whose vast dominion is known throughout the world. The tribute they paid was one beast out of every ten, and a tenth of all their other possessions.

As time passed, the Tartars increased greatly in number. When Prester John saw what a large people they had become, he began to fear they might cause him trouble. So, he devised a plan to disperse them across various countries, sending one of his Barons to execute this. When the Tartars learned about this plan, they took it very badly. Together, they left their land and traveled across a desert to a distant region to the north, where Prester John could no longer disturb them. In this way, they rebelled against his authority and stopped paying him tribute. Things remained so for some time.

“That part of ancient Babylon which is still inhabited is (as we have heard from credible travelers from overseas) called Baldach, whilst the area that, according to prophecy, is deserted and barren stretches about ten miles to the Tower of Babel. The inhabited section named Baldach is very large and populous; and although it should belong to the Persian kingdom, it was given by the Kings of Persia to their High Priest, whom they call the *Caliph*; this shows a certain similarity [*quaedam habitudo*] that has often been observed before, between Babylon and Rome. For the same privilege that in Rome was given to our chief Pontiff by the Christian Emperor has, there, been given to their High Priest by the pagan Kings of Persia, who have long ruled Babylonia. But these Persian Kings (just like ours have their royal seat at Aachen) have set their own capital at Ecbatana, which, in the Book of Judith, Arphaxat is said to have founded, and which in their language is called Hani—it is said to have 100,000 or more fighting men. They have reserved to themselves nothing of Babylon except symbolic rule. Lastly, the area now commonly called Babylonia, as mentioned, is not in fact on the Euphrates, as many suppose, but on the Nile, about six days from Alexandria. It is the same as Memphis, which Cambyses, son of Cyrus, once named Babylon.”—Ottonis Frising. Lib. VII. cap. 3, in Germanic Hist. Illust. etc. Christiani Urstisii Basiliensis, Francof. 1585.—Y.

#### CHAPTER XLVII. {.chapter}
Of Chinghis, and how he became the First Kaan of the Tartars.

Now, it happened in the year of Christ’s Incarnation 1187 that the Tartars chose for themselves a King named Chinghis Kaan. He was a man of great merit, skill (eloquence), and courage. As soon as word spread that he had been made King, all the Tartars of the world gathered to him and recognized him as their Lord. And he upheld the sovereignty they granted him most ably. What more can be said? The Tartars flocked to him in astonishing numbers, and when he saw how many followers he had, he prepared a great supply of spears, arrows, and other weapons they used, and set out to conquer all surrounding regions until he had subdued eight provinces. When he captured a province, he did no harm to the people or their property; instead, he placed some of his own men in the region, along with a share of locals, while he led the rest to conquer more lands. When those he had conquered realized how well and safely he protected them from others, how they were not harmed by him, and what a noble ruler he was, they joined him wholeheartedly and became his loyal supporters. Once he had gathered such a vast following as to seem to cover the land, he began to think of conquering much of the world. Now, in the year 1200, he sent envoys to Prester John, asking to marry his daughter. But when Prester John heard of Chinghis Kaan’s desire to marry his daughter, he became furious, telling the envoys, “How dare he ask for my daughter’s hand! Does he not know he is my subject and servant? Go back and tell him I would rather throw my daughter into fire than give her to him, and that he deserves death for his rebellion and treachery!” He ordered the envoys to leave at once and never return. The envoys, having received this answer, immediately hurried back to their lord and told him everything Prester John had charged them to say, leaving nothing out.

#### CHAPTER XLVIII. {.chapter}
How Chinghis Gathered his People to March Against Prester John

When Chinghis Kaan heard the insulting message that Prester John had sent him, he was seized with such fury that his heart nearly burst within him, for he was a man of very lofty spirit. At last, he spoke out, so loudly that all who were present could hear him: “He could never again be called a prince if he did not take revenge for Prester John’s insult, and such revenge as had never before been paid for an affront in this world. Before long, Prester John would know whether he was his serf or not!”

Then he gathered all his forces and assembled a host larger than had ever been seen or heard of, sending word to Prester John to prepare his defense. When Prester John had definite news that Chinghis was truly coming against him with such a multitude, he still pretended to treat it as a joke and a trifle, for, as he said, “these are no soldiers.” Nevertheless, he marshaled his forces, gathered his people, and made extensive preparations so that, if Chinghis did come, he might capture him and put him to death. In fact, he assembled such a host of many different nations that it was a wonder to the world.

So both sides prepared for battle. And why should I prolong the story? Chinghis Kaan and his entire host arrived at a vast and beautiful plain called Tanduc, which belonged to Prester John. There, he set up his camp; and the size of his army was so great that it could not be counted. When he learned that Prester John was approaching, he was overjoyed, for the location made a perfect and ample battleground, so he was eager to wait there and greatly looked forward to his arrival.

But now let us leave Chinghis and his host, and return to Prester John and his people.

#### CHAPTER XLIX. {.chapter}
How Prester John Marched to Meet Chinghis

Now, the story goes that when Prester John learned that Chinghis was advancing against him with his army, he went out to meet him with all his own forces, advancing until he reached that same plain of Tanduc. There, he set up his camp opposite Chinghis Kaan’s, twenty miles away. Then, both armies rested for two days to be stronger and more prepared for battle.

So, as you have heard, the two great hosts were pitched on the plains of Tanduc. One day, Chinghis Kaan summoned his astrologers, both Christians and Saracens, and asked them to foretell which of the two hosts would win the battle: his or Prester John’s. The Saracens tried to determine the outcome but could not give a true answer. The Christians, however, did give a true answer, and clearly showed beforehand what would happen. They took a cane, split it lengthwise, and placed one half on one side and the other half on the other, not letting anyone touch the pieces. One piece they called *Chinghis Kaan* and the other they called *Prester John*. Then they said to Chinghis, “Now, watch! You'll see how the battle will turn out, and who will prevail; for whichever cane ends up above the other, to him shall victory go.” He replied that he wanted to see it and told them to begin. Then the Christian astrologers read a Psalm from the Psalter and performed other incantations. And behold, while everyone watched, the cane bearing Chinghis Kaan’s name, without being touched by anyone, moved toward the other cane named Prester John and lay on top of it. When the Prince saw this, he was greatly pleased, and, seeing how accurately the Christians predicted the outcome, always treated them with great respect and regarded them as truthful men from then on.

#### CHAPTER L. {.chapter}
The Battle Between Chinghis Kaan and Prester John

After both sides had rested for those two days, they armed themselves for battle and fought with great ferocity; it was the greatest battle ever seen. The losses on both sides were enormous, but in the end Chinghis Kaan was victorious. In that battle, Prester John was slain. From that day forward, step by step, his kingdom fell into Chinghis Kaan’s hands until the entire realm was conquered.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i244.jpg)

*A. Housselin D.*

Death of Chinghiz Khan. (From a miniature in the Livre des Merveilles.)

Let me tell you that Chinghis Kaan reigned for six years after this battle, continually waging war and conquering many provinces, cities, and strongholds. But at the end of those six years, he went against a certain castle named Caaju, and there he was struck in the knee by an arrow, from which wound he died. It was a great loss, for he was a brave and wise man.

Now I will tell you who succeeded Chinghis, and then about the manners and customs of the Tartars.

#### CHAPTER LI. {.chapter}
Of those who did Reign after Chinghis Kaan, and of the Customs of the Tartars.

After Chinghis Kaan, their first Lord, the next to reign was Cuy Kaan. The third prince was Batuy Kaan, the fourth was Alacou Kaan, the fifth was Mongou Kaan, and the sixth was Cublay Kaan, who is now the sovereign ruler. He is more powerful than any of the five who came before him; in fact, if you combined all five of his predecessors, they would not possess the power he has. Indeed, I will go even further: if you were to gather all the Christians in the world, with all their emperors and kings, and add all the Saracens as well, they would not command as much power or achieve as much as this Cublay, who rules over all the Tartars in the world, including those of the Levant and the Ponent; all are his vassals and subjects. I intend to describe his immense power in detail in this book.

You should also know that all the Grand Kaans and all the descendants of Chinghis, their first Lord, are brought to a mountain called Altay to be buried. Wherever the Sovereign may die, his body is transported to be interred on that mountain with his ancestors, even if the place of his death is a journey of 100 days away; he must still be carried there for burial.

Let me share something remarkable. When the body of any Emperor is being carried to be buried with the others, those escorting the body will kill everyone they meet along the way, saying: “Go and wait upon your Lord in the other world!” For they truly believe those they slay during such processions will go to serve their Lord in the afterlife. They do the same with horses as well; when the Emperor dies, his best horses are killed, so that he may have use of them in the other world, as they believe. I assure you, it is a fact that when Mongou Kaan died, more than 20,000 people, who happened upon the funeral procession, were killed in this manner.

#### CHAPTER LII. {.chapter}
Concerning the Customs of the Tartars.

Now that we have begun to discuss the Tartars, I have much to share with you on the topic. The Tartar custom is to spend the winter in warm plains where they find good pasture for their cattle, while in summer they move to cooler climates among the mountains and valleys, where there is water, woods, and fresh pasture.

Their houses are round and made of wands covered with felt. These are carried with them wherever they go, as the wands are so strongly bound and well combined that the frame is very light. Whenever they set up these huts, the door always faces south. They also use wagons covered with black felt, so effectively that no rain can get inside. These are drawn by oxen and camels, and the women and children travel in them. The women handle the buying and selling, and manage whatever is necessary for the husband and household; the men all live as gentlemen, concerning themselves only with hunting and hawking, looking after their goshawks and falcons, unless they are engaged in warlike exercises.

They live on the milk and meat their herds provide, as well as on the products of the hunt; they eat all kinds of meat, including horse and dog flesh, and even Pharaoh’s rats, of which there are plenty burrowing on the plains. Their drink is mare’s milk.

They are very careful never to interfere with each other's wives, holding such conduct to be evil and abominable. The women are also very good and loyal to their husbands, and skilled housekeepers.

The marriage customs of the Tartars are as follows. Any man may take a hundred wives if he wishes and can provide for them. But the first wife is always held in the highest regard as the most legitimate . 253The husband gives a marriage payment to his wife's mother, while the wife brings nothing to her husband. Because they have so many wives, they have more children than most other people. They may marry their cousins, and if a father dies, his son may take any of his deceased father’s wives, with the exception of his own mother; that is, only the eldest son may do this. A man may also marry his brother’s widow. Their weddings are celebrated with great festivity.

#### CHAPTER LIII. {.chapter}
Concerning the God of the Tartars.

This is how their religion works. [They say there is a Most High God of Heaven, whom they worship daily with incense, but they pray to Him only for the health of mind and body. But] they also have [another] god called Natigay, who they say is the god of the Earth. He watches over their children, cattle, and crops. They give him great honor, and every man has a figure of him in his house, made of felt and cloth. They also make similar images of his wife and children. The wife is placed on the left, and the children in front. When they eat, they take the fat from the meat and grease the god’s mouth with it, as well as the mouths of his wife and children. Then they take some of the broth and sprinkle it before the door of the house. When that's done, they believe their god and his family have had their share of the meal.

Their drink is mare’s milk, prepared so that you would mistake it for white wine. It is a very good drink, called *Kemiz* by them.

The rich Tartars mostly wear clothes made of gold and silk, lined with expensive furs like sable, ermine, vair, and fox-skin, in the most lavish styles.

#### CHAPTER LIV. {.chapter}
Concerning the Tartar Customs of War.

All their war gear is excellent and costly. Their weapons are bows and arrows, sword, and mace; but above all, the bow, for they are outstanding archers—truly the best known. On their backs they wear armor made of cuirbouly, prepared from buffalo and other hides, which is very strong. They are excellent soldiers, and extremely brave in battle. They are also more able to endure hardships than other nations; for often, if necessary, they will go a month without any regular supply of food, living only on the milk of their mares and whatever game their bows can provide. Their horses, too, live entirely on the grass of the plains, so there is no need to carry stores of barley, straw, or oats; and the horses are extremely obedient to their riders. In times of necessity, the riders will remain on horseback all night, fully armed, while the horses continually graze.

Out of all the troops in the world, these endure the most hardship and fatigue, and are the least costly; they are the best for making great conquests. You can see this from what you have already read and will read in this book; and it is a fact that there can be no doubt that now they rule more than half the world. Their troops are organized in an admirable fashion, which I will now describe.

When a Tartar prince goes to war, he might take with him 100,000 horsemen. He appoints an officer for every ten men, one for every hundred, one for every thousand, and one for every ten thousand—so that his own orders only need to be given to ten people, each of whom passes orders to ten more, and so on; no one ever gives orders to more than ten at a time. Each person is responsible only to the officer directly above him. The discipline and organization resulting from this system is remarkable, for they are a people very obedient to their leaders. Furthermore, they call the corps of 100,000 men a *Tuc*; that of 10,000 a *Toman*; the thousand they call …; the hundred *Guz*; the ten …. When the army is moving, there are always 200 horsemen, well-mounted, sent two days' march ahead to scout; these always stay in the lead. Similar groups scout the rear and each flank, so there is careful surveillance against surprise on all sides. When going on a distant campaign, they take nothing except two leather bottles for milk, a small earthen pot for cooking meat, and a small tent for shelter from rain. In cases of extreme urgency, they will ride ten days straight without making a fire or taking a full meal. At such times, they survive by drinking their horses’ blood, opening a vein and letting it jet into their mouths, drinking until satisfied, then staunching the vein.

They also dry milk into a kind of paste to carry with them; when they need food, they dissolve this paste in water, mix it well, and drink it.

When they engage the enemy, they win battles in a particular way.  Since they do not consider it a shame to retreat in battle, they will  do so, and as they flee, they turn in the saddle and shoot powerfully at the foe—doing great damage. Their horses are trained so well they can dart back and forth like dogs, which is truly amazing. So they fight just as effectively when retreating as when facing the enemy, because of the rapid volleys of arrows they shoot while turning on their pursuers, who think that victory is theirs. But when the Tartars see they have killed or wounded many enemies and horses, they turn as one and return to the charge, with loud cries; 263and in a very short time, the enemy is routed. Truly, they are strong and brave soldiers, hardened to war. You will see that just when the enemy thinks he has won—as the Tartars appear to be fleeing—he has actually lost; for the Tartars wheel round at just the right moment. In this way, they have won many a battle.

All this is true of the customs of the old, authentic Tartars. But I must add that nowadays they are much degenerated; those settled in Cathay have taken up the ways of the local Idolaters, abandoning their own customs, while those settled in the Levant have adopted the practices of the Saracens.

#### CHAPTER LV. {.chapter}
Concerning the Administering of Justice among the Tartars

This is how they administer justice. When someone commits a minor theft, the authorities order that person to receive seven blows with a stick, or seventeen, or twenty-seven, or thirty-seven, or forty-seven, and so on, always increasing by tens based on the seriousness of the crime, up to one hundred and seven. Sometimes, people die from these beatings. However, if the crime is horse-stealing or some other grave offense, the thief is cut in two with a sword. Still, if the person can pay nine times the value of the stolen item as a ransom, he is released. Every lord or person who owns livestock marks them with his own brand—whether horses, mares, camels, oxen, cows, or other large animals—and sends them to graze in the plains, unguarded. The animals mix together, but every owner retrieves his animals by recognizing his brand. The brands are well-known. For sheep and goats, they do have shepherds. All their livestock are exceptionally fine, large, and in excellent condition.

They have another remarkable custom. If a man has a daughter who dies before marriage, and another man has lost a son who also died unmarried, the parents of the two arrange a grand wedding between their deceased children. They actually marry them, drafting a proper contract. When the contract papers are completed, they burn them, believing that this informs the deceased in the afterlife so that they may view each other as man and wife. From then onward, the parents consider themselves to be in-laws, just as if their children had married while alive. Any agreed dowry is painted on pieces of paper, which are then burned, with the belief that the dead will receive the actual items in the other world.

Now, I have told you all about the manners and customs of the Tartars; but you have not yet heard of the immense wealth and state of the Great Kaan, who is lord of all the Tartars and presides over the Supreme Imperial Court. I will tell you about this at the proper time and place in this book. For now, I must return to the story I left off, back at the great plain where we began to discuss the Tartars.

#### CHAPTER LVI. {.chapter}
Various Details about the Plain beyond Caracoron.

When you leave Caracoron and the Altay—the region where, as I mentioned, the bodies of the Tartar Sovereigns are buried—you travel north for forty days until you reach a country known as the Plain of Bargu. The people there are called Mescript; they are a very wild people who live off their livestock, most of which are stags. And, I assure you, they used to ride these stags. Their customs are similar to those of the Tartars, and they are subjects of the Great Kaan. They have neither grain nor wine. [They catch birds for food, as the region is full of lakes, pools, and marshes—places frequented by birds during their moulting season; after the birds shed their feathers and are unable to fly, these people capture them. They also eat fish as part of their diet.]

After traveling forty days across this vast plain, you reach the ocean, at the location of the mountains where Peregrine falcons make their nests. It is so cold in those mountains that you will find no men or women, nor any beasts or other birds, except for a bird called *Barguerlac*, which the falcons feed on. These birds are about as large as partridges, have feet like parrots, and a tail like a swallow, and are very strong fliers. When the Grand Kaan wants Peregrines from the nest, he has people sent there to collect them. Gerfalcons are also bred on islands in that sea. The area is so far north that you actually leave the North Star a bit behind you to the south! Gerfalcons are so plentiful there that the Emperor can have as many as he desires. And you shouldn’t think that the gerfalcons brought by Christians into the Tartar lands are for the Great Kaan—they are only sent to the Prince of the Levant.

Now I have told you all about the provinces to the north up to the Ocean Sea, beyond which there is no more land; so I will now tell you about the other provinces along the way to the Great Kaan. Let us, then, return to that province I mentioned earlier, called Campichu.

#### CHAPTER LVII. {.chapter}
Of the Kingdom of Erguiul, and Province of Sinju.

After leaving Campichu, you travel five days across a region where many spirits are heard speaking during the night. At the end of these five days' journey eastward, you arrive at a kingdom called Erguiul, which belongs to the Great Kaan. It is one of the several kingdoms that make up the great province of Tangut. The people here include Nestorian Christians, Idolaters, and followers of Mahomet.

There are many cities in this kingdom, but its capital is Erguiul. If you travel southeast from this place, you enter the province of Cathay. Following that road to the southeast brings you to a city called Sinju, also part of Tangut and subject to the Great Kaan, with many towns and villages under its control. The population is comprised of Idolaters and followers of Mahomet, but there are also some Christians. In this country, there are wild cattle almost as large as elephants—splendid creatures covered everywhere except the back with thick, shaggy hair about four palms long. They are partly black, partly white, and truly magnificent creatures; their hair or wool is extremely fine and white, finer and whiter than silk. Messer Marco brought some to Venice as a great curiosity, and those who saw it considered it remarkable. There are also many tame ones, which have been caught when young. They also cross these with common cows, and the offspring are extraordinary animals, better for work than others. These cattle are commonly used for carrying burdens, general work, and for the plough as well; they can do twice as much work as other cattle, being incredibly strong creatures.

This country also produces the best musk in the world, and I will explain how it is obtained. In that region, there is a wild animal similar to a gazelle. It has feet and a tail like a gazelle’s, but stag-like hair of a very coarse quality, and no horns. It has four tusks, two below and two above, about three inches long and slender, one pair growing upward and the other downward. It is a very attractive animal. The musk is found in this way: when the animal is caught, they find at its navel, between the flesh and skin, something like a swelling full of blood, which they cut out with the skin attached. The blood inside this growth is the musk that produces the strong perfume. There is an immense number of these animals in the area discussed. The flesh is very good to eat. Messer Marco brought the dried head and feet of one of these animals to Venice with him.

The people are traders and artisans, and they also grow plenty of grain. The province stretches for 26 days’ journey. Pheasants here are twice as large as ours, nearly as big as peacocks, with tails 7 to 10 palms in length. Besides these, there are other pheasants similar to ours in appearance, as well as birds of many kinds with beautiful, multi-colored feathers. The people, who are Idolaters, are plump, have small noses, black hair, and no beard except for a few hairs on the upper lip. The women also have very smooth and white skin, and, in every respect, are quite pretty. The men are very sensual and marry many wives, which is allowed by their religion. No matter how humble a woman’s background, if she has beauty, she may find a husband among even the highest men in the land—the man paying a large sum to the girl’s parents, according to their agreement.

#### CHAPTER LVIII. {.chapter}
Of the Kingdom of Egrigaia.

Departing once more from Erguiul, you travel eastward for eight days, and arrive at a province called Egrigaia, which has many cities and villages, and belongs to Tangut. The capital city is called Calachan. The majority of the people are Idolaters, but there are impressive churches belonging to the Nestorian Christians. They are all subjects of the Great Kaan. In this city, they manufacture in great quantity camlets made from camel’s wool, the finest in the world; some of these camlets are white, for they have white camels, and these are considered the best of all. Merchants buy these fabrics here and carry them for sale throughout the world.

We shall now continue eastward from this place and enter the region that was once Prester John’s territory.

#### CHAPTER LIX. {.chapter}
Concerning the Province of Tenduc, and the Descendants of Prester John.

Tenduc is a province situated towards the east, containing many towns and villages; its main city is also named Tenduc. The king of this province is descended from Prester John, and is called George. He holds the land as a vassal of the Great Kaan; but he does not rule anything close to all that Prester John once possessed. It is the custom, I should mention, that the kings from Prester John’s lineage always marry either daughters of the Great Kaan or other princesses from his family.

This province is also where the stone used to make Azure is found. It comes from a vein in the earth and is of excellent quality. There is also significant production of fine camlets—colored fabrics made from camel’s hair. The people make their living from cattle and farming, as well as trade and craftsmanship.

While Christians rule the province, as I have said, there are also many Idolaters and followers of Mahomet (Muslims). Additionally, there is a class of people called *Argons*, meaning in French *Guasmul*—that is, the offspring of two different races: specifically, those descended from the Idolaters of Tenduc and those who worship Mahomet. These Argons are more handsome than other locals, more capable, and it is often they who gain positions of authority; they are also outstanding merchants.

You should know that it was in this very capital city of Tenduc that Prester John had his seat of government when he ruled over the Tartars, and his heirs remain there. As I have said, King George, the current ruler, is descended from him—six generations down from Prester John.

This is also what *we* call the country of Gog and Magog; *they* call it Ung and Mungul, named for two peoples who lived in that Province before the Tartar migration. *Ung* was the people’s own name, while *Mungul* was sometimes used for the Tartars themselves.

After traveling seven days eastward through this province, you approach the provinces of Cathay. Throughout this seven-day journey, there are many towns and villages inhabited mainly by Mahometans, along with Idolaters and Nestorian Christians. They make their living through trade and production, including weaving the beautiful gold cloths called *Nasich* and *Naques*, as well as many kinds of silks. Just as in our parts of the world there are many kinds of woolen cloth, so in these regions they have many varieties of silk and gold fabric.

All this area is subject to the Great Kaan. There is a city called Sindachu, where many different crafts are practiced, including those supplying equipment for the Emperor’s troops. In a mountain in the province is an excellent silver mine, yielding much silver; the place is called Ydifu. The country also has plenty of game, both animals and birds.

Now let us depart this province and travel three days further.

#### CHAPTER LX. {.chapter}
Concerning the Kaan’s Palace of Chagannor.

After those three days, you reach a city called Chagan Nor [which means White Pool], where there is a great Palace belonging to the Grand Kaan; he is very fond of staying there because of the lakes and rivers nearby, which are home to swans and a great variety of other birds. The surrounding plains are also full of cranes, partridges, pheasants, and other game birds, so the Emperor especially enjoys spending time there to go hawking with his gerfalcons and other falcons, a sport he greatly loves.

There are five different kinds of cranes found in those lands, which I will now describe. The first is very large, and as black all over as a crow; the second kind is all white, and is the largest of all—it has truly beautiful wings, adorned with round eye-like spots similar to those of a peacock, but shining with a golden color, while the head is red and black on a white background. The third kind is like the ones we have. The fourth is a small type, with the ears bearing beautiful, long, hanging feathers that are red and black. The fifth kind is entirely grey, very large, with a handsome head that is red and black.

Near this city is a valley where the Emperor has built several small houses to keep a great number of *cators*, which are what we call the Great Partridge, enclosed. You would be amazed at how many there are, all watched over by caretakers. Whenever the Kaan visits, he is supplied with as many as he wishes.

#### CHAPTER LXI. {.chapter}
Of the City of Chandu, and the Kaan’s Palace there.

When you have ridden for three days from the last city mentioned, heading between northeast and north, you come to a city called Chandu, which was built by the current Kaan. At this place, there is a magnificent marble palace, the rooms of which are all gilded and decorated with paintings of people, animals, birds, and a variety of trees and flowers. All are executed with such remarkable skill that you look upon them with delight and amazement.

Around this palace, a wall has been built, enclosing an area 16 miles in circumference. Inside the park, there are fountains, rivers, brooks, and beautiful meadows filled with all kinds of wild animals (except those of a ferocious nature), which the Emperor has gathered there to provide food for his gerfalcons and hawks, which he keeps there in mews. There are more than 200 gerfalcons alone, not counting the other hawks. The Kaan himself visits his birds each week, sometimes riding through the park with a leopard behind him on his horse. If he sees any animal that interests him, he releases his leopard at it, and when the animal is caught, it is given as food to the hawks in mew. He does this for amusement.

Moreover, [at a spot in the park where there is a lovely wood] he has built another palace of cane, which I must describe. It is gilded all over and beautifully finished inside. [It stands on gilded and lacquered columns, each featuring a golden dragon. The tail of each dragon wraps around the column while the head supports the architrave, and the claws also reach out left and right to support the architrave.] The roof, like the rest, is made of canes, covered with such a strong and excellent varnish that no amount of rain can rot them. The canes are about 3 palms thick and 10 to 15 paces long. [They are cut across at each knot and then split, forming two hollow tiles from each, and with these, the house is roofed. Each cane tile must be nailed down to prevent the wind from blowing it away.] In short, the whole palace is made of these canes, which I should mention are also used for many other useful purposes. The design of the palace is such that it can be taken down and reassembled very quickly; it can all be dismantled and moved wherever the Emperor commands. When erected, it is secured [against wind damage] by more than 200 cords of silk.

The Lord spends time at this park, living sometimes in the Marble Palace and sometimes in the Cane Palace for three months of the year—namely June, July, and August; he prefers this residence because it is not at all hot; in fact, it is very cool. When the 28th day of [the Moon of] August arrives, he departs, and the Cane Palace is taken apart. But I must tell you what happens every year when he leaves this Palace on the 28th of the August [Moon].

You should know that the Kaan keeps an immense herd of white horses and mares—over 10,000, all pure white without any spots. Only he and his family, and those of one particular tribe with a special privilege, may drink the milk of these mares. This privilege was granted by Chinghis Kaan, in recognition of a victory the tribe helped him win long ago. The name of the tribe is Horiad.

When these mares pass through the country, anyone who meets them, no matter how great a lord, must not attempt to pass by until the mares have gone. He must either stop where he is or take a detour of half a day’s journey if necessary, just to avoid going near them, as they are treated with the utmost respect. Now, when the Lord leaves the park on the 28th of August, as I mentioned, the milk from all those mares is taken and sprinkled on the ground. This is done on the advice of the idolaters and their priests, who claim it is highly beneficial to sprinkle that milk on the ground every 28th of August, so that the Earth, the Air, the False Gods, and the Spirits that inhabit the Air and Earth all receive their share. In this way, they believe, those beings will protect and bless the Kaan and his children, wives, people, possessions, cattle, horses, crops, and all that he owns. After this ritual, the Emperor departs.

But now I must tell you something strange that I had previously forgotten. During the three months each year when the Lord resides there, if bad weather arises, there are certain clever enchanters and astrologers in his retinue—skilled in necromancy and the so-called dark arts—who are able to prevent any cloud or storm from passing over the spot where the Emperor’s palace stands. The sorcerers responsible for this are called Tebet and Kesimur, after the names of two nations of idolaters. Whatever they accomplish is with the help of the Devil, though they lead people to believe it is achieved by their own holiness and God’s aid. [They always go about untidy and unclean, showing no respect for themselves or onlookers, unwashed, unkempt, and wearing dirty clothes.]

These people also have a custom worth mentioning. If a man is lawfully condemned to death and executed, they take his body, cook, and eat it. But if someone dies a natural death, they will not eat the body.

There is another marvel performed by these Bacsi, famed for their knowledge of enchantments. When the Great Kaan is at his capital and in his grand palace, seated at his table, which stands on a platform about eight cubits above the ground, his cups are set before him [on a great buffet] in the middle of the hall floor, about ten paces from his table, filled with wine or other fine spiced drinks as they use. Now, when the Lord desires a drink, these enchanters, through their magic, make the cups move from their spot—untouched by anyone—and come over to the Emperor! This is witnessed by everyone present, often more than 10,000 people. It is true and not a lie! Sages in our country who are skilled in necromancy can testify to this, as they too can perform such feats.

When the Idol Festivals occur, these *Bacsi* approach the Prince and say: “Sire, the Feast of such a god has come” (naming the god). “My Lord, you know,” the enchanter will say, “that this god, when he gets no offerings, always sends bad weather and ruins our seasons. So we ask you to give us such and such a number of black-faced sheep,” naming however many they like. “And we also request, my lord, such a quantity of incense, so much lignaloes,”—and so on with whatever else they wish—“so that we may perform a solemn service and a great sacrifice to our idols, convincing them to protect us and all that we have.”

The *Bacsi* say these things to the Barons responsible for Stewardship around the Great Kaan, who then relay the requests to the Kaan, and he orders the Barons to provide all that the Bacsi have asked for. When they have received these items, they hold a grand feast in honor of their god, conducting elaborate worship ceremonies with bright illuminations and plenty of incense made from various aromatic spices. They cook the meat, present it to the idols, and sprinkle the broth around, saying that in this way the idols are satisfied. This is how they keep their festivals. You should know that each idol has its own name and feast day, just as our Saints have their own anniversaries.

They also have immense minsters and abbeys, some as large as small towns, with more than two thousand monks (according to their customs) in a single abbey. These monks dress more decently than the rest of the people and keep their head and beard shaved. Some among these *Bacsi* are permitted by their rule to marry and have many children.

There is also another type of devotee called Sensin, who practice extraordinary abstinence by their customs, leading lives of great hardship, as I will describe. All their lives, they eat nothing but bran, which they mix with hot water. That is their only food: bran, nothing else; and their only drink is water. It is a lifelong fast! So I may well say their lives represent extraordinary asceticism. They have many great idols, but sometimes also worship fire. Other idolaters, who are not part of this sect, call these people heretics—*Patarins*, as we would say—because they do not worship their idols in the common fashion. Those I speak of would never take a wife under any circumstances. They wear garments made of hempen fabric in black and blue, and sleep on mats; indeed, their asceticism is astonishing. Their idols are all female—that is, they have women’s names.

Now, let us leave this subject and allow me to tell you about the great wealth and splendid magnificence of the Great Lord of Lords; I mean that noble and powerful Prince who is sovereign of the Tartars, Cublay by name, a most illustrious and mighty Lord.

This distance is taken from a tracing of the map prepared for Dr. Bushell’s paper cited below. However, there is a significant discrepancy between this tracing and the observed position of Dolon-nor—which determines the location of Shang-tu—as Dr. Bushell noted in a letter to me.

These details were obtained by Dr. Bushell through the Archimandrite Palladius, from the manuscript account of a Chinese traveler who visited Shangtu about two hundred years ago, when likely the entire inscription was still above ground. The inscription is also mentioned in the Imperial Geography of the current dynasty, as cited by Klaproth. This work gives the interior wall a length of 5 *li* per side, instead of 2 *li*, and the outer wall 10 *li*, instead of 4 *li*. Thanks to Dr. Bushell’s kindness, I provide a reduced version of his sketch plan (see Itinerary Map, No. IV. at the end of this volume), and also a plate of the inscription’s heading. The translation is: “Monument conferred by the Emperor of the August Yuen (Dynasty) in memory of His High Eminence Yun Hien (styled) Chang-Lao (canonized as) Shou-Kung (Prince of Longevity).”

Ramusio’s version reads: “The palace presents one side to the center of the city and the other to the city wall. And from either end of the palace where it reaches the city wall, there extends another wall, which makes a circuit and encloses a good 16 miles of plain, so that no one can enter this enclosure except by passing through the palace.”

This narrative, translated from Chinese into Russian by Father Palladius, and from Russian into English by Mr. Eugene Schuyler, Secretary of the U.S. Legation at St. Petersburg, was kindly sent to me by the latter gentleman and appeared in the Geographical Magazine, January 1875.

See Book II, chapter xiv., note 3.

In the first edition, I had supposed the Persian words *Jádú* and *Jádúgari*, which are commonly used in India for conjuring, to have derived from the Tartar use of *Yadah*. Pallas notes that the Kirghiz call their witches *Jádugar* (Voy. II. 298). However, Sir H. Rawlinson assures me that this etymology is highly doubtful, and that in any case, the Persian (*Jádú*) is likely older than the Turkish term. I see that M. Pavet de Courteille derives *Yadah* from a Mongol word meaning “change of weather,” etc.

A young Afghan, in Arthur Conolly’s presence at Herat, claimed that on an occasion when provisions ran short, the Russian General ordered that 50,000 men be killed and served out as rations! (I. 346.)

Ar. *Táfir*, meaning a sordid, squalid fellow.

*Shen*, or when paired with *jin* (“people”), *Shenjin*, in this context provides another possible origin for the word *Sensin*; but, in fact, as regards the first syllable, it might ultimately share the etymology we prefer.

I do not find this reference in Mr. Beal’s new version of Fahian.

Apparently, they had mastery over the entire catalogue of modern “Spiritualists.” Duhalde lists among their sorceries the ability to conjure by invocation the forms of Lao-tseu and their deities in the air, and to *make a pencil write answers to questions without anyone touching it*.

It is possible this refers to some report of the mystical impurities associated with the Tantrists. According to the Dabistan, the *Saktián*, or Tantrists, believe that worship of a female deity brings a greater reward. (II. 155.)

### BOOK SECOND.
(1.) ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT KAAN CUBLAY; OF HIS PALACES AND CAPITAL; HIS COURT, GOVERNMENT, AND SPORTS.

(2.) CITIES AND PROVINCES VISITED BY THE TRAVELLER ON ONE JOURNEY WESTWARD FROM THE CAPITAL TO THE FRONTIERS OF MIEN IN THE DIRECTION OF INDIA.

(3.) AND ON ANOTHER SOUTHWARD FROM THE CAPITAL TO FUCHU AND ZAYTON.

BOOK II.![](assets/images/part-1/images/diamondbar4.png)

PART I.—THE KAAN, HIS COURT AND CAPITAL.

#### CHAPTER I. {.chapter}
Of Cublay Kaan, the Great Kaan now Reigning, and of his Great Power.

Now I have reached the section of our book where I will tell you of the great and remarkable magnificence of the Great Kaan now reigning, named Cublay Kaan. *Kaan* is a title meaning “The Great Lord of Lords,” or Emperor. And he surely deserves such a title, for all men know for a fact that he is the most powerful person, in forces, lands, and wealth, that has ever existed in the world, or ever existed from the time of our First Father Adam until today. All this I will make clear to you as truth in this book, so that everyone will be willing to admit that he is the greatest Lord that is now in the world, or has ever been. And now you shall hear how and why.

#### CHAPTER II. {.chapter}
Concerning the Revolt of Nayan, Uncle to the Great Khan Kublai.

Now, this Kublai Khan is of the true Imperial lineage, being descended from Chinggis Khan, the first ruler of all the Tartars. He is the sixth Lord in that line, as I have already mentioned in this book. He came to the throne in the year of our Lord 1256, and the Empire passed to him because of his ability, courage, and great virtues, as was proper and just. His brothers and other relatives did contest his claim, but it remained his, both because he held it through great strength and because, by law and rights of inheritance, it belonged to him as a direct descendant of the imperial line.

Up to the present year of our Lord, that is 1298, he has reigned forty-two years, and his age is about eighty-five, so he must have been about forty-three years old when he first ascended the throne. Before that time he had often gone to war and had shown himself a brave soldier and an excellent commander. But after becoming Emperor, he went personally to battle only once. This happened in the year 1286, and I will tell you why he did so.

There was a powerful Tartar chief named Nayan, a young man [of thirty], Lord over many lands and provinces, and he was Uncle to the Emperor Kublai Khan of whom we speak. And when Nayan found himself with such authority, he became proud in the arrogance of his youth and power; for indeed he could field 300,000 horsemen, though he remained a subject of his nephew, the Great Khan Kublai, as was right and proper. Considering his great might, he decided he would no longer be the Khan’s vassal; in fact, he hoped to take the Empire from him if he could. So, Nayan sent envoys to another Tartar prince named Kaidu, also a powerful Lord and his relative, who was a nephew of the Great Khan and his lawful subject too, though he was in open rebellion and bitter hostility against his sovereign Lord and Uncle. Nayan’s message was this: that he was preparing to march against the Great Khan with all his troops (which were many), and asked Kaidu to do the same from his side, so that by attacking Kublai on two fronts with such great armies, they might seize his empire.

When Kaidu heard Nayan’s message, he was overjoyed and believed the time had finally come to achieve his desires. He sent word back agreeing to the plan and gathered his army, which amounted to about one hundred thousand horsemen.

Now let us return to the Great Khan, who had learned of the entire plot.

#### CHAPTER III. {.chapter}
How the Great Khan Marched Against Nayan.

When the Great Khan heard of these events, he made his preparations with great spirit, like one who did not fear the challenge to justice. Confident in his own righteousness and strength, he was entirely undisturbed, promising that he would never wear a crown again if he did not bring those two traitorous and disloyal Tartar chiefs to a disastrous end. His preparations were made so swiftly and secretly that only his Privy Council knew of them, and all was completed within ten or twelve days. In that short time, he assembled some 360,000 horsemen and 100,000 foot soldiers—a small force for him, made up only of those nearby. The rest of his vast armies were too distant to answer such an urgent call, being under orders from him on campaigns to conquer different lands and provinces. Had he waited to call them all, the assembled forces would have been unimaginably large, beyond anything ever recorded or heard of. In truth, those 360,000 horsemen he gathered were virtually made up of the falconers and whippers-in around the court!

When he had prepared this small portion of his army, he ordered his astrologers to predict whether he would win the battle and defeat his enemies. After making their calculations, they told him to proceed boldly, for he would conquer and achieve glorious victory, at which he rejoiced greatly.

So he marched with his army, and after advancing for twenty days they arrived at a great plain where Nayan was camped with all his forces, some 400,000 horsemen. 336The Great Khan’s army arrived so swiftly and unexpectedly that the enemy knew nothing of it. The Khan had placed guards everywhere to watch for scouts, and any that appeared were immediately captured. Therefore, Nayan received no warning and was completely surprised, so much so that when the Great Khan’s army arrived, he was asleep in the arms of a wife to whom he was extremely devoted. This explains why the Emperor equipped his army with such speed and secrecy.

#### CHAPTER IV. {.chapter}
Of the Battle that the Great Kaan fought with Nayan.

What shall I say about it? When day had fully broken, the Kaan stood with all his army upon a hill overlooking the plain where Nayan lay in his tent, 337completely at ease, with not the slightest thought that anyone would come there to do him harm. In fact, he was so confident that he kept no guards, either in front or behind; for he was unaware of the Great Kaan’s approach, since all the roads had already been entirely secured, as I previously described. Furthermore, the place was deep in a remote wilderness, more than thirty marches away from the Court, though the Kaan had covered the distance in twenty, so eager was he to confront Nayan in battle.

And what shall I tell you next? The Kaan stood on the hill, mounted upon a large wooden bartizan, which was carried by four well-trained elephants, and his standard was raised high above him so it could be seen from all sides. His troops were arranged in divisions of 30,000 men each; and most of the horsemen carried a foot-soldier, armed with a lance, seated on the crupper behind him (for this was how the footmen were arranged); and it looked as though the entire plain was covered with his forces. So this is how the Great Kaan’s army was formed for battle.

When Nayan and his followers realized what was happening, they were greatly alarmed and rushed to arms. Nevertheless, they prepared themselves in good order and formed their troops properly. And when both sides were drawn up in battle formation as I described, and nothing remained but to begin the fight, you would have heard a noise rise up of many musical instruments and of the voices of both hosts singing loudly together. For it is the Tartars’ custom, before entering battle, to all join in singing and playing a certain two-stringed instrument of theirs—a sound quite pleasing to hear. And so they remained in their battle lines, singing and playing in this delightful manner, until the 338great Naccara of the Prince was heard to sound. As soon as it began to play, the battle began on both sides; and, by the custom, no one dared to begin fighting before the Prince’s Naccara sounded.

So then, as they were singing and playing, though ready and arranged for battle, the great Naccara of the Great Khan began to sound. Nayan’s Naccara also sounded. From then on, the din of battle was heard loudly on both sides. They fought bravely with their bows and maces, with lances and swords, and with the footmen’s arblasts—it was a wondrous sight to see. You could see such flights of arrows from both sides that the whole sky seemed covered with them and they fell like rain. You could see, on both sides, many knights and men-at-arms falling slain, so that the whole field appeared covered with them. Cries rose everywhere from the crowds of the wounded and dying, so that if God had thundered, you would not have heard Him! For the fighting was fierce and furious, and no mercy was given.

But why should I drag this out? You should know that it was the most dangerous, fierce, and terrifying battle ever fought in our times. Never have such large forces, especially of horsemen, been engaged in battle—for, on both sides combined, there were no fewer than 760,000 horsemen, a mighty force!—and that is not counting the many thousands of footmen. The fighting lasted with changing fortunes from morning until noon. But in the end, by God’s will and by the justice of his cause, the Great Khan won the victory, and Nayan 339lost and was completely routed. For the Great Kaan’s army performed such feats of arms that Nayan and his men could no longer stand against them and turned and fled. But this did Nayan no good; for he and all the barons with him were captured and forced to surrender to the Kaan along with all their weapons.

Now you should know that Nayan was a baptized Christian and bore the cross on his banner; but this did him no good, considering how greatly he had sinned in rebelling against his Lord. For he was the Great Kaan’s vassal, and was bound to hold his lands from him like all his ancestors before him.

#### CHAPTER V. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan ordered Nayan to be put to death.

When the Great Kaan learned that Nayan had been captured, he was very pleased and immediately commanded that Nayan be put to death quickly and in secret. He did this so that no one would try to seek mercy or pardon for Nayan, since he was of the Kaan’s own blood. The method chosen for his death was this: Nayan was wrapped in a carpet and tossed around so harshly that he died. The Kaan had him executed in this way to avoid spilling the blood of the Imperial Line on the ground, exposing it either to Heaven or to the Sun.

After the Great Kaan’s victory in the battle, as you have just heard, all the Barons and people of the provinces that had belonged to Nayan renewed their loyalty to the Kaan. These provinces, four in number, that had been under Nayan’s rule, were: Chorcha, Cauly, Barscol, and Sikintinju. Nayan had been Lord of all these four great provinces; it was an impressive dominion.

After the Great Kaan had defeated Nayan, as described, various groups present—Saracens, Idolaters, Jews, and many others not believing in God—mocked the Christians because of the cross that Nayan had carried on his standard, so much so that it became unbearable. They would say to the Christians: “See now what wonderful help your God’s Cross gave to Nayan, who was a Christian and a worshipper of it.” The outcry was so loud that word reached the Great Kaan himself. When he heard this, he sharply rebuked those insulting the Christians, and also told the Christians to be courageous: “If the Cross gave Nayan no help, it was because it did what was right; for Nayan was a disloyal and traitorous rebel against his Lord, and got what he deserved. Therefore, the Cross of your God did well not to help him do wrong.” He said this so loudly that all could hear. The Christians then replied to the Great Kaan: “Great King, you truly speak the truth, for our Cross cannot help anyone do wrong; that is why It did not aid Nayan, who was guilty of crime and disloyalty, for It does not associate with evil deeds.”

After that, the mocking from unbelievers against the Christians ceased, for all had heard what the Sovereign told the Christians about the Cross on Nayan’s banner and why it gave him no help.

#### CHAPTER VI. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan returned to the City of Cambaluc.

After the Great Kaan had defeated Nayan in the way described, he returned to his capital city of Cambaluc, where he remained, enjoying rest and holding celebrations. The other Tartar Lord, named Caydu, was deeply troubled by news of Nayan’s defeat and death, and kept himself in readiness for war, but greatly feared receiving the same treatment as Nayan.

As I have told you, the Great Kaan only went on campaign personally this one time; for all other needs, he sent his sons or barons to lead in his place. This time, however, he would let none but himself command, because Nayan’s bold rebellion was such a grave and dangerous matter that he felt it demanded his personal attention.

#### CHAPTER VII. {.chapter}
How the Kaan Rewarded the Valor of His Captains

So we will finish with the matter of Nayan, and continue our account of the great state of the Great Kaan.

We have already told you about his lineage and age; but now I must tell you what he did upon his return, regarding those barons who had performed well in the battle. He promoted the captain of 100 to captain of 1,000; and the captain of 1,000 men he advanced to be captain of 10,000, rewarding every man according to his merit and previous rank. In addition, he gave them gifts of fine silver plate and other valuable items, awarded them Tablets of Authority of a higher degree than before, and bestowed upon them fine gold and silver jewels, pearls, and precious stones—so much, in fact, that what each received was astonishing. Yet it was still not as much as they had earned; for never were men seen who accomplished such feats of arms out of love and loyalty for their Lord as these did on that day of battle.

Now, those Tablets of Authority I mentioned are organized in this way. The officer who is captain of 100 has a silver tablet; the captain of 1,000 has a tablet of gold or gilded silver; and the commander of 10,000 has a gold tablet, with a lion’s head on it. I will also tell you the weight of the different tablets, and what they signify. The tablets of the captains of 100 and of 1,000 weigh each 120 *saggi*; and the tablet with the lion’s head engraved on it, which belongs to the commander of 10,000, weighs 220 *saggi*. On each of the tablets is inscribed a phrase that reads: “*By the strength of the great God, and the great grace He has given our Emperor, may the name of the Kaan be blessed; and let all who will not obey him be slain and destroyed*.” Besides this, everyone holding these tablets also receives written warrants, declaring all their powers and privileges.

I should also mention that an officer who commands 100,000 men, or is general-in-chief of a great army, is entitled to a tablet that weighs 300 *saggi*. It has an inscription like the one I have already mentioned, and below it, the figure of a lion, and below the lion, the sun and moon. They also receive warrants of their high rank, command, and authority. Furthermore, everyone who holds a tablet of such high degree is entitled, whenever he goes out, to have a small golden canopy—what is called an umbrella—carried on a spear over his head, as a sign of his high command. And whenever he sits, he sits in a silver chair.

To certain very great lords, a tablet with gyrfalcons on it is given; this is reserved only for the greatest of the Kaan’s barons, and it grants them his full power and authority. So, if one of those chiefs wishes to send a messenger anywhere, he can take the horses of any man—even a king—and any other property he desires.

σοκóκκινα, extending from the Hypersebastus to the grand Stratopedarchus, and so on—just as was the case, with different titles, in Java. Yet it is curious that John Marignolli, Ibn Batuta’s contemporary in the mid-14th century, and Barbosa in the 16th century, both go out of their way to describe the umbrella as a strange object. And in our own country, it is commonly said that the umbrella was first used in the last century, and that Jonas Hanway (died 1786) was among the first to carry one regularly. However, the word *umbrello* appears in Minsheu’s dictionary.
“In the year of the Monkey, eighth moon, fourth day, by the river Cobam (*the Ḳuban*), at the Red Bank we wrote this.” The original was in the Persian language.

See Golden Horde.

#### CHAPTER VIII. {.chapter}
Concerning the Person of the Great Kaan.

The appearance of the Great Kaan, Lord of Lords, whose name is Cublay, is as follows. He is of good stature, neither tall nor short, but of average height. He has a healthy amount of flesh and is shapely in all his limbs. His complexion is fair and red, his eyes are black and attractive, his nose is well-formed and well set. He has four wives, who remain with him permanently as his legitimate consorts; and the eldest son by these four wives ought, by rights, to be emperor when his father dies. These four women are called empresses, but each also has her own name. Each of them maintains a special court of her own, which is very grand and spacious; none has fewer than 300 beautiful and charming damsels attending her. They also have many pages and eunuchs, and a number of other attendants of both sexes; in all, each of these ladies has no fewer than 10,000 people attached to her court.

When the Emperor desires the company of one of these four consorts, he may either send for the lady to his chambers or visit her in hers. He also has a great number of concubines, and I will explain how he selects them.

There is a Tartar tribe called Ungrat, renowned for their beauty. Every year, one hundred of the most beautiful maidens of this tribe are sent to the Great Kaan, who places them under the care of certain elderly ladies residing in his palace. These elder ladies make the girls sleep with them, in order to check whether they have sweet breath , and are sound in all their limbs. Those among them who pass as truly beautiful and healthy in every respect are assigned to attend on the Emperor by turns. Six of these young women serve in rotation for three days and nights, attending the Emperor in his chamber and bed, to serve him in any way, and to be entirely at his command. After the three days and nights, another group of six relieves them. In this way, there are always shifts of maidens, six at a time, rotating every three days and nights throughout the year.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i357.jpg)

Portrait of Kúblái Kaan. (From a Chinese Engraving.)

#### CHAPTER IX. {.chapter}
Concerning the Great Kaan’s Sons.

The Emperor has, by his four wives, twenty-two sons; the eldest of whom was called Chinkin, named out of admiration for the noble Chinghis Kaan, the first Lord of the Tartars. Chinkin, as the Great Kaan’s eldest son, was intended to succeed his father after his death, but he passed away before that could happen. However, he left behind a son named Temur, who is designated to become the next Great Kaan and Emperor after the passing of his grandfather, as is fitting, being the son of the Great Kaan’s eldest. Temur is already known to be a capable and brave man, having proven himself on numerous occasions.

The Great Kaan has another twenty-five sons by his concubines; each is a skilled and valorous warrior, and every one a prominent chief. Furthermore, among his children by his four legitimate wives, there are seven who reign as kings over vast territories or provinces, ruling them well; they are all able and courageous, as one might expect. For their father, the Great Kaan, is said to be the wisest and most accomplished man, the greatest leader, and the most effective ruler and warrior to have ever lived among all the Tartar tribes.

#### CHAPTER X. {.chapter}
Concerning the Palace of the Great Kaan.

You should know that for three months of the year—namely December, January, and February—the Great Kaan resides in the capital city of Cathay, which is called Cambaluc, [and which is at the north-eastern end of the country]. In that city stands his grand Palace, and now I will describe what it is like.

It is surrounded on all sides by a great wall forming a square, each side of which measures a mile in length; so the entire perimeter is four miles. You may be sure of this; it is also very thick, and at least ten paces high, whitewashed and loop-holed all around. At each corner of the wall, there is a very fine and richly decorated palace where the Emperor’s war equipment is kept, such as bows and quivers, saddles and bridles, bowstrings, and everything needed for an army. Also, halfway between each pair of these Corner Palaces, there is another similar one; so, in total, there are eight vast Palaces around the enclosure, all stocked with the Great Lord’s military gear. You must understand that each Palace is dedicated to only one type of item: one holds bows, another saddles, another bridles, and so on, following this pattern all the way around.

The great wall has five gates on its southern side, the central one being the main gate, which is only opened when the Great Kaan himself enters or leaves. Right beside this main gate on either side is a smaller gate for everyone else; then, toward each corner, there is another large gate, open to the public as well. So, there are five gates on that side in all.

Inside this wall is another, enclosing an area that is somewhat longer than it is wide. This inner enclosure also has eight palaces, corresponding to those in the outer wall, all stocked with the Lord’s arms and armor. This wall also has five gates on its southern side, matching those in the outer wall, and has a gate on each of the other sides—just like the outer wall. In the center of the second enclosure is the Lord’s Great Palace, and I will now describe it for you.

You should know that it is the greatest Palace that has ever existed. [On its north side, it touches the outer wall, while on the south side there is an open area traversed constantly by Barons and soldiers. The Palace itself] has no upper floor, being built entirely at ground level; only the foundation is raised about ten palms above the surrounding ground [and this height is achieved by a marble wall up to the level of the pavement, two paces thick and projecting beyond the base of the Palace to make a kind of terrace-walk, allowing people to walk around the building. This terrace is exposed and features a very fine columned balustrade at its outer edge, where visitors may come]. The roof is extremely high, and the Palace walls are covered throughout with gold and silver. They are also adorned with images of dragons [sculpted and gilded],364, beasts and birds, knights, idols, and many other decorations. The ceiling is likewise covered only with gold, silver, and paintings. [Each of the four sides has a grand marble staircase leading to the top of the marble wall, serving as the approach to the Palace.]

The Palace Hall is so large that it could easily accommodate 6,000 people for a banquet; and it is quite astonishing how many rooms there are as well. The entire building is so vast, lavish, and beautiful that no one on earth could design anything superior to it. The outside of the roof is painted with vermilion, yellow, green, blue, and other colors, finished with a varnish so fine and exquisite that it shines like crystal, casting a brilliant glow that can be seen from far away. The roof itself is so strong and well made that it could last forever.

Between the two walls of the enclosure I just described, there are beautiful parks with trees bearing all sorts of fruits. There are also animals of various kinds, such as white stags and fallow deer, gazelles and roebucks, and fine squirrels of several varieties, along with many musk-producing animals, and all sorts of other beautiful creatures. In fact, the entire area is full of them, except for the paths where people are coming and going. [The parks are covered with abundant grass; and the roads through them are all paved and set two cubits above ground level, so they never become muddy. Rainwater doesn’t pool on them, but drains off to the meadows, enriching the soil and producing such abundant vegetation.365]

From the north-western corner of the enclosure, there extends a beautiful lake, full of many kinds of fish that the Emperor had put there himself, so that whenever he wants, he can have them. A river runs into the lake and out again, but there is an iron or brass grate so that the fish cannot escape that way.

Moreover, to the north of the Palace, about a bow-shot away, is an artificial hill [created from the earth dug out when making the lake]; it is about a hundred paces in height and a mile around. This hill is completely covered with evergreen trees. And let me assure you, whenever a particularly beautiful tree is found anywhere, the Emperor orders it brought with all its roots and surrounding earth and has it planted on this hill—no matter how big the tree. If necessary, he uses elephants to carry it. In this way he has assembled the finest collection of trees in the world. He also had the entire hill covered with azure ore, which is intensely green. So, not only are the trees green, but the hill itself is green too; everything you see there is green, which is why it’s called the Green Mount, a name it truly deserves.

On the top of the hill, there is a large palace painted green both inside and out; so the hill, the trees, and the palace together make a beautiful sight—and their matching color is truly remarkable! Everyone who sees them is delighted. The Great Kaan had this magnificent scene created for his own comfort and pleasure.

You should know that near the Palace we’ve described—the Great Palace—the Emperor has built another just like it in every detail, and this he made for his son, who will rule after him. It is constructed identically and is the same size, so that government can continue just the same after the Emperor’s death. [It is located on the opposite side of the lake from the Great Kaan’s Palace, and a bridge crosses the water from one to the other.] The Prince who will succeed holds an Imperial Seal, though not with the complete authority of the Great Kaan, who remains supreme as long as he lives.

Now I will tell you about the chief city of Cathay, where these Palaces stand; why it was built, and how.

#### CHAPTER XI. {.chapter}
Concerning the City of Cambaluc.

In former times, there was a large and noble city called Cambaluc on this site, which, in our language, means “The city of the Emperor.” However, the Great Kaan was warned by his astrologers that this city would become rebellious, causing serious trouble for his imperial rule. So he ordered the construction of a new city right beside the old one, separated only by a river. He then moved the people from the old city into the new one that he established, which is now called Taidu.

Regarding the size of the new city, you should know it measures 24 miles in circumference, with each side being 6 miles long, and it is perfectly square. The entire city is surrounded by earthen walls, which are a full ten paces thick at the base and more than 10 paces high; the thickness decreases higher up, so that at the top, they are only about 3 paces thick. Throughout the walls are loop-holed battlements, all of which are whitewashed.

There are 12 city gates, and above each gate stands a large and handsome palace, making three gates and five palaces on each side of the square; this is because at each corner, there is also a grand palace. These palaces house huge halls where the weapons of the city garrison are kept.

The streets are so straight and wide that you can see clearly from one end to the other, from gate to gate. Throughout the city are beautiful palaces, many impressive and grand inns, and numerous fine houses.

In the center of the city is a great clock, which is actually a bell that is rung at night. After it has tolled three times, no one is allowed out in the city except for cases such as a woman in labor or someone sick. Anyone on such urgent business must carry a lantern. Additionally, there is a guard of 1000 armed men at each city gate—not, as you might think, out of fear of attack, but as an honor guard for the Sovereign who lives there, and to prevent thieves from causing trouble in the city.

Mr. Wylie confirms my conclusion: “While in Peking, I followed the old mud wall... and found it matches your map. Mr. Gilmour (a missionary to the Mongols) and I rode around it, he on the outside, I on the inside…. Neither of us saw the arch Dr. Lockhart described…. *There* are *gate-openings about the middle of the east and west sides*, but no barbicans.” (4 December 1873.)

#### CHAPTER XII. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan Maintains a Guard of Twelve Thousand Horse, known as the Keshican.

You should know that the Great Kaan, in order to uphold his position, maintains a guard of twelve thousand horsemen, who are called Keshican, meaning “Knights devoted to their Lord.” He does not keep these men out of fear of anyone, but solely because of his high status. These 12,000 men are divided among four captains, each commanding 3,000. Each group of 3,000 takes a turn serving three days and three nights guarding the palace, where they also eat their meals. When their three days and nights are up, they are relieved by a new group of 3,000, who take their turn for the same period, followed by the next detachment. In this way, there are always 3,000 on duty at any given time. This schedule rotates until all 12,000, known as Keshican (as stated), have served their turn; then the cycle starts again, continuing year after year.

One of the closest readings is that of the Brandenburg Latin collated by Müller, which has *Quaesicam*.

#### CHAPTER XIII. {.chapter}
The Fashion of the Great Kaan’s Table at his High Feasts.

When the Great Kaan sits at table for any major court occasion, it is arranged in this manner. His table is raised considerably above the others, and he sits at the north end of the hall, facing south, with his chief wife seated to his left. On his right sit his sons, nephews, and other close imperial relatives, but at a lower level so that their heads are in line with the Emperor’s feet. The other Barons are seated at other tables set lower still. The same arrangement applies to the women: all the wives of the Lord’s sons, nephews, and other kinsmen are seated at the lower table to his right; lower still sit the ladies married to the other Barons and Knights, each placed according to the Lord’s instructions. The tables are positioned so the Emperor can see all of them from end to end, no matter how many there are. [Moreover, not everyone is seated at the tables; rather, most of the soldiers and their officers dine in the hall seated upon the carpets.] Outside the hall there are more than 40,000 people, as a great crowd comes to bring gifts to the Lord, or arrives from foreign lands with curiosities.

Near where the Great Kaan sits, in a particular spot in the hall, there [is a large and very beautiful piece of craftsmanship in the form of a square coffer or buffet, about three paces in each direction, elaborately decorated with carved and gilded figures of animals. The center is hollow, containing] a great vessel made of pure gold, capable of holding as much as an ordinary barrel; and at each corner of this grand vessel sits a smaller one [about the size of a firkin], and from the main vessel, wine or drink infused with fine and costly spices is drawn off into the smaller ones. [And on the buffet mentioned are arranged all the Lord’s drinking vessels, including certain pitchers of the finest gold,] called *verniques*, each large enough to serve eight or ten people. One of these pitchers is placed between every two individuals, along with a pair of golden handled cups, so everyone helps themselves from the pitcher shared with their neighbor. The ladies are served in the same fashion. The value of these pitchers and cups is truly immense; indeed, the Great Kaan owns such a quantity of golden and silver plate of every kind that no one has ever seen or heard of anything equal to it, nor could they imagine it.

You should know that those who serve the Great Kaan his dishes and drinks are themselves some of the great Barons. They cover their mouths and noses with fine silk and gold napkins, so that no breath or odor from them can taint the food or drink given to the Lord. Whenever the Emperor is about to drink, all the musical instruments in his vast collection begin to play. When he takes the cup, all the Barons and everyone else present drop to their knees and pay deep homage to him, and only then does the Emperor drink. Each time he drinks, the entire ceremony is repeated.

I won’t go into details about the dishes, as you can easily imagine there is a great variety of everything. But you should know that whenever a Baron or Knight is present at those tables for dinner, their wives also dine there with the other ladies. When everyone has finished eating and the tables have been cleared away, a large number of entertainers and jugglers, skilled in all kinds of marvelous acts, perform before the Emperor and the assembled company, providing great amusement and merriment so that everyone is filled with laughter and joy. Once the performance concludes, the company breaks up and everyone returns to their quarters.

#### CHAPTER XIV. {.chapter}
Concerning the Great Feast held by the Grand Kaan every Year on his Birthday.

You should know that the Tartars celebrate their birthdays with grand festivals each year. The Great Kaan was born on the 28th day of the September moon, so on that day the largest feast of the year is held at the Kaan’s Court, except for the celebration he hosts on New Year’s Day, which I will describe later.

Now, on his birthday, the Great Kaan dresses in his finest robes, all crafted from beaten gold; and a full 12,000 Barons and Knights appear dressed in robes of the same color and in an identical style to the Great Kaan’s, though theirs are not as expensive; still, they are all of the same color as his and made of silk and gold. Every man so attired also has a gold belt; both the dress and the belt are given to him by the Sovereign. And I assure you, some of these outfits are decorated with so many pearls and precious stones that a single suit can be worth no less than 10,000 golden bezants.

There are several sets of such clothing. For you must know that the Great Kaan provides his Barons and Knights with these suits of clothing thirteen times each year. On each occasion, they wear the same color as he does, with a different color for each festival. So, you can see what an enormous undertaking this is, and there is no other prince in the world except him who could maintain such traditions.

Also on his birthday, all the Tartars everywhere, as well as all the countries and territories that owe allegiance to the Kaan, send him lavish gifts as determined by their ability and as custom or orders have set the amount. Many other people also arrive with grand gifts for the Kaan, hoping to obtain a position from him. The Great Kaan has appointed twelve Barons and assigned them the duty of giving each of these petitioners a suitable reply.

On this day as well, all the idolaters, all the 388Saracens, all the Christians, and people of other faiths hold grand and solemn acts of worship, with much chanting, lighting of lamps, and burning of incense, each praying to their own God to protect the Emperor, granting him long life, health, and happiness.

So, as I have described, the joyful celebration of the Kaan’s birthday takes place.

Next, I will tell you about another festival the Kaan hosts at the New Year, called the White Feast.

There are thirteen months in the Chinese year in seven out of every nineteen years.

#### CHAPTER XV. {.chapter}
Of the Great Festival which the Kaan holds on New Year’s Day.

Their New Year begins in the month of February, and on this occasion, the Great Kaan and all his subjects celebrate a grand festival, which I will now describe.

It is customary that, on this day, the Kaan and everyone in his realm dress entirely in white; so that day, all—men and women, young and old—wear white. This is done because they believe white clothing brings good fortune throughout the year. On this day, people from every province, government, kingdom, and country loyal to the Kaan bring him lavish gifts of gold, silver, pearls, gems, and fine textiles of various kinds. They do this so that the Emperor may have abundance and enjoyment all year without worry. People also exchange white gifts among themselves, embracing, kissing, making merry, and wishing happiness and good luck for the new year. I can assure you, among the usual gifts, more than 100,000 beautiful white horses, richly adorned, are presented to the Kaan from different places. [And you should know that it is customary when presenting gifts to the Great Kaan (at least when the province can afford it) to offer nine times nine items. For example, if a province sends horses, it sends nine times nine or 81 horses; if gold, nine times nine pieces of gold, and the same with fabrics or anything else.]

On this day as well, all the Kaan’s elephants—at least 5,000—are displayed, all draped in rich, colorful cloths with designs of animals and birds. Each elephant carries two splendid chests on its back, all filled with the Emperor’s plate and other costly items required for the Court at the White Feast. These are followed by a great number of camels, also richly decked out, carrying things needed for the Feast. All these animals are paraded before the Emperor, making for a truly magnificent sight.

Furthermore, on the festival morning, before the tables are set, all the Kings, Dukes, Marquesses, Counts, Barons, Knights, Astrologers, Philosophers, Physicians, Falconers, and other officials from all surrounding regions gather in the Great Hall before the Emperor. Those who cannot fit inside stand outside in such a way that the Emperor can see them all. The entire company is organized as follows: first, the Kaan’s sons, nephews, and other imperial princes; next, the Kings; then Dukes; then others in order of rank. When everyone is seated in their proper places, a high prelate rises and calls out loudly: “Bow and adore!” As soon as he says this, the company bows, touching their foreheads to the ground in adoration toward the Emperor, as if he were a deity. This is repeated four times. Then, they proceed to a grand altar holding a vermilion tablet inscribed with the Grand Kaan’s name, and a beautiful golden censer. They respectfully burn incense at the tablet and altar, then return to their seats.

Once everyone has done this, the gifts—so rich and splendid—are presented to the Emperor. After all the gifts have been offered and viewed by the Emperor, the tables are set. Everyone sits in perfect order, as I have described before. After the meal, jugglers entertain the Court, as you've heard earlier; and once the amusements end, everyone returns to their quarters.

#### CHAPTER XVI. {.chapter}
Concerning the Twelve Thousand Barons who receive robes of Cloth of Gold from the Emperor on the Great Festivals, thirteen changes each.

You should know that the Great Kaan has designated 12,000 men known as *Keshican*, as I have mentioned before. To each of these 12,000 Barons he gives thirteen sets of clothing, all different: in one set, all 12,000 are dressed the same color; the next set, all a new color, and so on, for thirteen different colors in total. These robes are decorated with gems, pearls, and other precious items in very rich and costly ways. Along with each new set of robes—thirteen times a year—each of these 12,000 Barons also receives a fine, valuable gold girdle and a pair of boots made of *Camut*, that is, *Borgal*, richly sewn with silver thread. When they are in these outfits, every man among them looks like a king! There is a set order for which dress is worn at each of the thirteen feasts. The Emperor himself also has thirteen suits matching his Barons’ in color (though his are far grander, richer, and more costly), so he is always dressed the same color as his Barons, who are, in a sense, his companions. The expense of all this is almost impossible to calculate.

So, I have told you about the thirteen changes of clothing given by the Emperor to these 12,000 Barons. This makes a total of 156,000 costly suits, not counting the valuable girdles and boots, which are also worth a huge sum. The Great Lord instituted all of this to add more grandeur and dignity to his festivals.

Here’s something else, which I had forgotten but will now mention, and you may find it astonishing. On the Feast Day, a great lion is led before the Emperor; as soon as the lion sees him, it lies before him showing the greatest respect, as if recognizing him as lord. It stays there, lying unchained at his feet. Truly, this story may seem unbelievable to anyone who hasn’t witnessed it!

#### CHAPTER XVII. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan Orders His People to Supply Him with Game

During the three months of December, January, and February, while the Emperor stays in his Capital City, about 40 days' journey around the city is set aside for hunting and fowling. During this period, it is required that most of the large game caught, such as boars, roebucks, bucks, stags, lions, bears, and so on, as well as feathered game, be sent to the Court. The animals are cleaned and sent to the Court in carts. All people living within 20 or 30 days’ journey must do this, resulting in an enormous quantity sent. Those living farther away can't send the game itself but are required to send the tanned skins, which are then used to make equipment for the Emperor’s army.

#### CHAPTER XVIII. {.chapter}
Of the Lions, Leopards, and Wolves the Kaan Keeps for the Hunt

The Emperor keeps many leopards trained for the hunt, as well as a great number of lynxes, also taught to catch game, providing excellent sport. He also has several great Lions, larger than those found in Babylonia, their coats beautifully marked with stripes of black, red, and white. These Lions are trained to hunt boars, wild cattle, bears, wild asses, stags, and other large or fierce animals. It’s really something remarkable to watch these lions chase the animals I’ve just listed! When they are to be used in this way, the Lions are brought out in covered carts, and each has a small dog with him.

There are also many eagles, all trained to catch wolves, foxes, deer, and wild goats. They catch these animals in great numbers. The eagles used especially for hunting wolves are very large and strong, and no wolf can escape them.

Dated Yangi Hissar, 10th April, 1874.

#### CHAPTER XIX. {.chapter}
Concerning the Two Brothers Who Have Charge of the Kaan’s Hounds

The Emperor has two Barons who are brothers—one named Baian and the other Mingan; these brothers are called *Chinuchi* (or *Cunichi*), which means “The Keepers of the Mastiff Dogs.” Each brother commands 10,000 men; one group of 10,000 dresses in red, the other in blue, and whenever they accompany the Emperor on a hunt, they wear these colors to be easily recognized. Out of each group of 10,000, there are 2,000 men in charge of one or more large mastiffs, so the total number of dogs is very great. When the Prince goes hunting, one of the Barons leads his 10,000 men and about 5,000 dogs off to the right, while the other leads his men and dogs to the left in the same way. They move forward in a line, side by side, so that the whole formation stretches across a full day's journey, letting no animal escape. Truly, it is a magnificent sight to see how the dogs and huntsmen work together on these occasions! As the Lord rides across the plains hunting birds, you will see these large hounds racing, one pack after a bear, another after a stag, or after whatever other beast they come upon, bringing down game now on this side and now on that. It is, indeed, a most delightful sport and spectacle.

Now that I have told you about the Masters of the Hounds and their responsibilities, I will next tell you how the Lord embarks on an expedition that lasts for three months.

#### CHAPTER XX. {.chapter}
How the Emperor Goes on a Hunting Expedition.

After staying at his capital city for the three months I mentioned—December, January, and February—he sets out on the 1st of March and travels southward towards the Ocean Sea, a journey of two days. He is accompanied by no less than 10,000 falconers, as well as about 500 gerfalcons, along with peregrines, sakers, and many other hawks, and goshawks used for hunting waterfowl. But don’t assume all of these stay right by him; the birds and falconers are spread out in groups of a hundred, or at most two hundred, as he sees fit. Still, they are constantly hunting as they move, and most of the game caught is sent to the Emperor. Let me tell you, when he goes out hunting with his gerfalcons and other hawks, he is attended by 10,000 men, arranged in pairs, called 403 *Toscaol*, which means “Watchers.” The title reflects their role. They are stationed two by two, covering a vast area! Each man has a whistle and hood, so he can call back a hawk and hold it. When the Emperor lets a bird fly, he need not track it himself, because these men watch so carefully that the birds are never lost, and if the hawks need rescuing, they're ready to help.

All of the Emperor’s hawks, as well as those belonging to the Barons, wear a small label on the leg identifying both owner and keeper. This label ensures any recovered bird is promptly returned to its owner. If not, the bird is taken to a specific Baron known as the *Bularguchi*, meaning “The Keeper of Lost Property.” Anything found without a known owner—be it a horse, sword, hawk, or anything else—is immediately brought to him, and he keeps it safe. If the finder fails to do this, the Baron punishes him. Likewise, anyone who has lost an item comes to the Baron, and if the item is in his keeping, it is instantly returned. This Baron always sets up his tent on the highest ground in camp and displays a banner, so anyone who has lost or found anything can easily locate him. Thus, nothing ever remains lost for long—it is soon found and restored.

So, the Emperor travels along the road I mentioned, near the Ocean Sea (which is only two days’ journey from his capital, Cambaluc), and along the way there are many splendid sights, and the entertainment of hawking is of the highest order—in fact, there's no sport on Earth to compare!

The Emperor himself rides on four elephants that carry a beautifully crafted chamber made of timber, lined inside with plates of beaten gold and on the outside with lions’ skins—this is how he always travels on his hunting expeditions, because he suffers from gout. He keeps a dozen of his finest gerfalcons with him, attended by several Barons who ride on horseback beside his chamber. Sometimes, as they journey on, while the Emperor talks with the Barons, one of them will suddenly call out, “Sire! Look out for Cranes!” The Emperor immediately opens the top of his chamber, spots the cranes, and lets fly one of his gerfalcons, whichever he pleases. Often, he sees the kill himself, enjoying the sport as he sits in his chamber or reclines on his bed, and the Barons with him enjoy it too! Truly, I do not believe there ever has been—or ever will be—a man with such enjoyment, or with such rare privileges.

When he reaches a place called Cachar Modun, he finds his tents set up, along with those of his Sons, his Barons, and his Ladies, and their attendants—there are about 10,000 tents in total, all splendid and lavish. Let me explain how his own quarters are arranged. The main court tent is large enough to shelter a thousand people. It faces south, with Barons and Knights waiting inside, while the Lord himself stays in another tent just west of it. Anyone wishing to see him is summoned to that other tent. Just behind the main tent is a large, fine chamber where the Lord sleeps; there are many other tents and chambers, though these are not attached directly to the Great Tent. The two audience tents and the sleeping chamber are each supported by three poles, which are made of spice-wood and expertly covered in lions’ skins, striped in black, white, and red, to withstand any weather. All three rooms are covered outside with the same kind of striped lion skins, which last forever. The interiors are lined with ermine and sable, considered the finest and most expensive furs in the world. A robe of sable, large enough to line a cloak, may cost 2,000 bezants of gold, or at least 1,000. Among the Tartars, this fur is called “The King of Furs.” The animal itself is about the size of a marten. The furs are inlaid with astonishing craftsmanship—truly something remarkable. The tent-ropes are made entirely of silk. In short, the two audience tents and the sleeping chamber are so extravagant that not every king could afford them.

Around these main tents are others, also rich and beautiful, for the Emperor’s ladies, as well as for the ladies of the other princes and officers. There are also tents for the hawks and their keepers; in total, the number of tents in the camp is truly remarkable. The crowds moving about every day make it look more like a sizable city. Consider the doctors, astrologers, falconers, and all their attendants in such a large company—and everyone brings his whole family, as is their custom.

The Lord remains encamped there until the spring, 406, spending all his time hawking among the canebrakes along the lakes and rivers of the region, and across broad plains with plentiful cranes, swans, and other waterfowl. The other nobles of the camp are continually engaged in hunting and hawking too; every day they return with abundant venison and birds of all kinds. Honestly, unless you saw it yourself, you would not believe how much game is caught, or what wonderful sport and joy the company experiences.

Another rule to mention: for a distance of twenty days’ journey around the camp, no one, no matter their status, is permitted to keep hawks or hounds; elsewhere, anyone may keep them as they please. Moreover, throughout the Emperor’s lands, no one, however bold, dares to hunt any of these four animals—hare, stag, buck, and roe—from March to October. Anyone who did would suffer dearly for it. Yet the people are so obedient to the Emperor’s commands that even if a man found one of those animals sleeping by the roadside, he would never touch it! The result is that the animal populations multiply so rapidly that the country is teeming with game, ensuring that the Emperor always has plenty. Outside of that period—from March to October—anyone may hunt these animals as he wishes.

After the Emperor has remained there from March to mid-May, enjoying the sport as described, he sets off with all his people straight back to his capital, Cambaluc (also the capital of Cathay, as I’ve said), continuing to hunt and hawk along the way.

#### CHAPTER XXI. {.chapter}
How the Year of the Great Kaan is Spent

When the Great Kaan arrives at his capital, Cambaluc, he stays in his palace there for only three days. During this time, he holds grand court festivities, celebrates with his wives, and makes merry. After these three days, he leaves his palace in Cambaluc and travels to the city he previously built, called Chandu, where his great park and cane palace are located, and where his gerfalcons are kept in mew. He spends the summer there to escape the heat, as the area is very cool. He remains at Chandu from the beginning of May until the 28th of August. At that time, when they sprinkle the white mares’ milk as I described earlier, he departs and returns to his capital Cambaluc. He then resides in Cambaluc, as mentioned before, for the month of September to celebrate his Birthday Feast, and continues to stay throughout October, November, December, January, and February. In February, he observes the grand feast of the New Year, which is called the White Feast, as you have already heard in detail. After this, he sets out on a journey towards the Ocean Sea, hunting and hawking, and remains away from the beginning of March until the middle of May. He then returns for only three days to the capital, during which he again celebrates with his wives and hosts a splendid court with grand entertainments. Truly, the magnificence shown by the Emperor during these three days is astonishing; after this, he departs once again as you know.

His entire year is thus organized in the following way: six months at his main palace in the royal city of Cambaluc, that is, *September*, *October*, *November*, *December*, *January*, *February*;

Then the great hunting expedition towards the sea in *March*, *April*, *May*;

Then back to his palace at Cambaluc for *three days*;

Then off to the city of Chandu, the site of the Cane Palace, where he stays for *June*, *July*, *August*;

And finally, he returns to his capital, Cambaluc.

That is how he spends the year: six months at the capital, three months on hunting expeditions, and three months at the Cane Palace to avoid the heat. In this way, he spends his time with the greatest enjoyment, except for the occasional journeys he might take wherever he pleases.

#### CHAPTER XXII. {.chapter}
About the City of Cambaluc, Its Busy Commerce, and Vast Population

You should know that the city of Cambaluc contains such a multitude of houses and such a vast population, both inside and outside the city walls, that it seems almost unbelievable. Each of the twelve gates has a suburb outside it; these suburbs are so large that they actually hold more people than the city itself. The suburb of one gate spreads wide until it meets the next suburb, and each extends three or four miles in length. These suburbs host the foreign merchants and travelers—always present in large numbers—who have come to bring gifts to the Emperor, sell wares at court, or simply because the city is such a fine market that it attracts traders from everywhere.  So there are just as many good houses outside the city as inside, not even counting the many homes of great lords and barons.

![](assets/images/part-1/images/i413.jpg)

Plain of Cambaluc; the City in the distance; from the Hills on the North-West.

You should also know that burying any dead body inside the city is forbidden. If the deceased was an Idolater, the body is carried outside the city and suburbs to a remote area set aside for burning. For those of a faith that buries its dead, like Christians, Saracens, or others, the body is likewise taken beyond the suburbs to an area designated for burial. In this way, the city remains healthier and cleaner.

Furthermore, public women are not allowed to live inside the city; all such women must live in the suburbs. It is remarkable how many there are serving foreigners; it is certain there are more than 20,000 women making a living by prostitution. The fact that so many can earn a living this way shows how enormous the city’s population is.

To this city, more valuable and rare articles are brought—and in greater abundance—than to any other city in the world. People come from every nation, bringing goods of every kind, including the rich wares of India as well as the fine and precious produce of Cathay itself. Some goods go to the sovereign, some to the court, some to the city, which is so immense, and some to the many barons and knights and the huge imperial army stationed nearby. Thus, between the court and the city, the amount brought in truly has no end.

As an example, there is not a single day in the year when fewer than 1,000 cartloads of silk arrive in the city. This is made into large quantities of silk and gold cloths and other goods. And this should not be surprising, since there is no flax grown in any of the nearby countries, so nearly everything must be made from silk. Although there is some cotton and hemp in certain areas, it is not enough for their needs. But this is not much trouble, since silk is so abundant and inexpensive—and in fact, worth more than flax or cotton.

Around the great city of Cambaluc are some 200 other cities at varying distances. Traders from these come to sell their goods and buy others for their lords, and all are able to conduct their business, making the city's commerce truly immense.

#### CHAPTER XXIII. {.chapter}
\[Concerning the Oppressions of Achmath the Bailo, and the Plot that was formed against Him.

You will hear later how twelve people are appointed with full authority to dispose of lands, offices, and everything else at their discretion. Among these was a certain Saracen named Achmath, a shrewd and capable man, who had more power and influence with the Grand Kaan than any of the others. The Kaan regarded him so highly that Achmath could do as he wished. In fact, as would later come to light after his death, Achmath had so bewitched the Kaan with his sorcery that the Emperor placed great trust and confidence in everything he said, thus doing whatever Achmath wanted.

This man controlled all governments and offices and passed judgment on all criminals. Whenever he wished to have someone he disliked put to death, whether justified or not, he would go to the Emperor and say: "So-and-so deserves death for having done this or that against your imperial dignity." The Lord would answer, "Do as you think right," and so Achmath would have the person executed at once. Seeing how limitless his power was, and how absolute the Emperor's trust in his word, no one dared oppose him in anything. No one, no matter how high in rank or office, was free from fear of him. If someone was accused of a capital offense by Achmath and tried to defend himself, he could bring no evidence in his own defense, for no one dared stand up to Achmath. In this way, he caused many to perish unjustly.

Moreover, there was no beautiful woman he desired that he could not have. If she was unmarried, he forced her to become his wife; if otherwise, he compelled her to submit to his desires. Whenever he heard of anyone with a pretty daughter, certain brutes in his service would go to the father and say, "Well then, you have this beautiful daughter; marry her to Bailo Achmath (for they called him 'the Bailo,' or as we might say, 'the Vicegerent'), and we'll arrange for him to grant you such-and-such a government or office for three years." So, the man would give up his daughter. Achmath would then go to the Emperor and say, "Such a government is vacant, or will soon be vacant. So-and-so is a suitable candidate for the post." The Emperor would reply, "Do as you think best," and the girl's father was immediately given the government. Thus, either from ambition or fear of the Minister, all the beautiful women were at his disposal, either as wives or mistresses. He also had about twenty-five sons who held important offices, and some of these, protected by their father's name, carried out scandals and many other outrageous actions. Achmath also amassed great wealth, for everyone wanting a position had to pay him a heavy bribe.

This man held such power for twenty-two years. At last, the people of the country—the Cathayans—could no longer endure the endless outrages and villainies he committed against them, whether against their wives or themselves, and conspired to kill him and revolt against the government. Among them was a Cathayan named Chenchu, a commander of a thousand, whose mother, daughter, and wife had all been dishonored by Achmath. Filled with bitter anger, Chenchu discussed the Minister's destruction with another Cathayan named Vanchu, a commander of 10,000. They agreed that the right time would be during the Great Kaan's absence from Cambaluc. After spending three months there, the Kaan would go to 418Chandu and remain three months, while his son Chinkin would leave for his usual pursuits, leaving Achmath in charge of the city and only contacting the Kaan in Chandu if emergencies arose.

So, Vanchu and Chenchu, having settled their plan, brought it to the leading Cathayans, and then by consensus sent word to allies in other cities that they intended, on a certain day, to massacre all the men with beards at a signal given by beacon, with the other cities to do the same upon seeing the signal fires. The reason for targeting bearded men was that the Cathayans naturally have no beards, while Tartars, Saracens, and Christians do. All the Cathayans hated the Grand Kaan's rule because he set Tartars, or even more often Saracens, as their governors—people they could not tolerate, as they treated them like slaves. You see, the Great Kaan had not inherited the rule of Cathay but held it by conquest, and having little trust in the local people, he put all authority into the hands of Tartars, Saracens, or Christians allied to him—foreigners in Cathay.

So, on the chosen day, Vanchu and Chenchu entered the palace at night. Vanchu sat and had many lights lit before him. He then sent a messenger to Achmath the Bailo, who was living in the Old City, pretending to summon him to the presence of Chinkin, the Great Kaan's son, who was said to have arrived unexpectedly. Achmath, surprised, hurried to comply because he greatly feared the Prince. Upon reaching the gate, he met a Tartar named Cogatai, Captain of the 12,000 who formed the city's standing garrison. Cogatai asked where he was going so late. "To Chinkin, who has just arrived," Achmath answered. Cogatai replied, "How can that be? How could he arrive so secretly that I know nothing of it?" He followed Achmath, bringing some of his soldiers. The Cathayans believed that if they could kill Achmath, nothing else need concern them. So Achmath entered the palace, saw all the lights, and bowed down before Vanchu, mistaking him for Chinkin. Chenchu, standing ready with a sword, immediately cut off his head. When Cogatai, halted at the entrance, saw this, he shouted "Treason!" and immediately shot an arrow, killing Vanchu as he sat. He called his men to seize Chenchu and declared throughout the city that anyone found in the streets would be executed immediately. Realizing that the Tartars had discovered the plot and now lacking a leader since Vanchu was dead and Chenchu was captured, the Cathayans stayed in their homes and couldn’t signal the other cities to rise. Cogatai quickly sent messengers to the Great Kaan with a full report, and the Kaan instructed him to investigate thoroughly and punish the guilty. In the morning, Cogatai examined all the Cathayans and executed many who were found to be plot leaders. The same occurred in other cities once it was clear the plot reached them as well.

After the Great Kaan returned to Cambaluc, he was eager to understand what had led to all this, and he then learned about the countless wrongs committed by the wicked Achmath and his sons. It was proven that he and seven of his sons (for not all were evil) had forced countless women to be their wives, in addition to those whom they had violated. The Great Kaan ordered all the wealth Achmath had stored in the Old City to be moved to his own treasury in the New City, and it proved to be enormous. He also ordered Achmath's body to be dug up and thrown in the street for the dogs, and those sons who had followed their father’s evil ways were flayed alive.

These events drew the Kaan’s attention to the wicked doctrines of the Sect of the Saracens, which excuse any crime—murder included—when committed against non-believers. Seeing that this doctrine had led Achmath and his sons to such acts with no sense of guilt, the Kaan was filled with revulsion and loathing for it. He called the Saracens before him and forbade them from doing several things their religion required. In particular, he ordered them to conduct their marriages according to Tartar law and forbade them from cutting the throats of animals for food, instructing them instead to cut open the stomach in the Tartar manner.

Now, when all this took place, Messer Marco was present.\]

#### CHAPTER XXIV. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan Causes the Bark of Trees, Made into Something Like Paper, to Serve as Money Throughout His Country

Now that I have described in detail the splendor of the Emperor’s city, I shall go on to tell you about the Mint he has in this same city, where his money is coined and struck, as I am about to describe. By explaining this, I shall show you how the Great Lord can accomplish even more than what I have already told you, or will tell you in this book. However I may try, you would scarcely believe I am staying within the truth and reason!

The Emperor’s Mint is located in this very city of Cambaluc, and its operations are such that one might say he truly possesses the Secret of Alchemy—and rightly so! For he makes his money in this way.

He has them take the bark of a certain tree, namely the Mulberry Tree, whose leaves are used to feed silkworms—these trees are so plentiful that some entire districts are full of them. The part they use is a certain fine white layer or skin located between the wood of the tree and the thick outer bark, and this is made into something resembling sheets of paper, though black in color. Once these sheets are prepared, they are cut into pieces of different sizes. The smallest size is worth half a tornesel; the next size up, one tornesel; a slightly larger one is worth half a silver groat of Venice; another size is worth a whole groat; others represent two groats, five groats, and ten groats. There is also a kind worth one Bezant of gold, and others worth three Bezants, going up to ten. All these pieces of paper are [issued with as much ceremony and authority as if they were made of pure gold or silver; each piece is signed and sealed by a number of officials whose job it is to do so. When everything is properly prepared, the chief officer, appointed by the Kaan, smears his seal with vermilion and presses it onto the paper, leaving the red imprint of the seal; this makes the money official. Anyone caught forging it is punished by death.] And every year the Kaan has such a vast quantity of this money made—at no cost to him—that it surely equals all the wealth in the world.

With these pieces of paper, made as I’ve described, all the Emperor’s payments are carried out. He ensures they are accepted everywhere throughout his kingdoms, provinces, and territories—wherever his authority reaches. No one, no matter how important he thinks he is, dares refuse them, on pain of death. In fact, everyone accepts them willingly, since wherever a person travels in the Great Kaan’s lands, these paper notes are accepted and used for all sales and purchases of goods just as if they were coins of pure gold. And all the while, they are so light that ten bezants’ worth weighs less than a single golden bezant.

Furthermore, all merchants coming from India or other countries, bringing gold, silver, gems, and pearls, are forbidden to sell to anyone except the Emperor. He has twelve experts selected for this business—men experienced and shrewd in such matters—who appraise the items, and then the Emperor pays a generous price for them in this paper money. The merchants accept this price willingly, as they could not get a better price anywhere else, and they are paid immediately. With this paper money, they can buy whatever they like anywhere in the Empire, and it is also much lighter to carry on their journeys. It is true that merchants may bring goods worth up to 400,000 bezants several times a year, and the Grand Sire pays for everything with this paper. Thus, he acquires such a quantity of these valuables each year that his treasures seem endless, yet the money he pays costs him nothing. Several times each year, a proclamation is made throughout the city that anyone with gold, silver, gems, or pearls can bring them to the Mint and will receive an excellent price. Owners are glad to do so, knowing that no one else would pay so much. In this way, though participation is voluntary, most valuables in the country eventually come into the Kaan’s hands.

Whenever any of these pieces of paper are damaged—not that they are especially fragile—the owner brings them to the Mint, and by paying a three percent fee, receives new notes in exchange. If any Baron or anyone else needs gold, silver, gems, or pearls for making items such as plates or girdles, he may go to the Mint and buy what he wants, paying with this paper money.

Now you have heard how the Great Kaan can have, and truly has, more treasure than all the kings in the world; now you know why. Next, I will tell you about the high officials who serve in this city on behalf of the Emperor.

Even today, at least eight different *taels* (or liangs) are in widespread use across China, ranging between 96 and 106; in addition, many local *taels* exist within the same range.—(Williamson’s Journeys, I. 60.)

Similarly, for Customs payments, this remains the practice of the present Italian government.
The first edition of this work included a facsimile of one of Sushun’s ill-fated notes.
Both sides also bore the Muslim formula, and below that the words *Yiranjín Túrjí*, a title given by the Kaan to the kings of Persia. An inscription declared that the Emperor, in 693 AH, issued these auspicious *chao*, that counterfeiters would be punished severely (with their families and possessions confiscated), and that, once in circulation, these notes would end poverty, make goods cheap, and equalize rich and poor (*Cowell*). The use of *chao* at Tabriz is comparable to the term *Bănklōt*, used in modern India.
#### CHAPTER XXV. {.chapter}
Concerning the Twelve Barons who are set over all the Affairs of the Great Kaan.

You should know that the Great Kaan has appointed twelve great Barons, entrusting to them all essential matters concerning thirty-four major provinces. I will now share more details about them and their organization.

These twelve Barons all live together in a very grand and beautiful palace inside the city of Cambaluc, consisting of various buildings and many suites of rooms. Each province is assigned a judge, along with several clerks, and all of them reside in this palace, each having their own quarters. These judges and clerks manage all the affairs of their respective provinces, taking their direction from the twelve Barons. However, when an issue is especially important, the twelve Barons present it to the Emperor, who decides as he sees fit. But the power of these twelve Barons is so great that they select the governors for all those thirty-four provinces mentioned, and only after making their choice do they inform the Emperor. The Emperor then confirms their selection and gives the nominee a gold tablet that matches the rank of their position.

These twelve Barons also have the authority to direct the movement of military forces, sending troops wherever and in whatever numbers they please. This is done with the Emperor’s knowledge, but the orders are issued under their authority. They are called Shieng, which means “The Supreme Court,” and the palace where they live is also known as *Shieng*. This body is the highest authority at the Great Kaan’s Court; indeed, they can promote or favor whomever they wish. I will not list the thirty-four provinces to you here, as they will be discussed in more detail elsewhere in this Book.

#### CHAPTER XXVI. {.chapter}
How the Kaan’s Posts and Runners are Sent Through Many Lands and Provinces

You should know that from the city of Cambaluc, many roads and highways extend to various provinces—one road to one province, another to another—and each road is named after the province it leads to. This is a very sensible arrangement. The Emperor’s messengers, as they travel from Cambaluc, whichever road they take, find every twenty-five miles a station called *Yamb*, or, as we would say, the “Horse-Post-House.” At each of these stations used by the messengers, there is a large, handsome building for them to stay in. These buildings have all the rooms furnished with fine beds and other necessary items in rich silk, and the messengers are provided with everything they might want. Even a king, if he arrived at one of these stations, would find himself very well accommodated.

At some of these stations, there are as many as four hundred horses ready for the messengers’ use; at others, there are two hundred, depending on the needs and the Emperor’s instructions for each location. At every twenty-five miles, as I mentioned, or at most every thirty miles, you will find one of these stations along all the main highways going to the different provincial governments; and the same system is found throughout all the major provinces under the Great Kaan’s rule. Even when messengers must travel through a roadless area with no houses or inns, station-houses have still been established, except that the intervals are somewhat greater, and a day's journey is set at thirty-five to forty-five miles instead of the usual twenty-five to thirty. But even in these places, they are provided with horses and all other necessities, just like in the locations I’ve described, so that the Emperor’s messengers—no matter where they come from—find everything ready for them.

Truly, this is a magnificent arrangement on a scale never seen before. No emperor, king, or lord has ever shown such wealth as this! In fact, throughout all these post-stations, there are more than 300,000 horses kept, exclusively for the messengers. And the grand buildings I mentioned number over 10,000, all richly furnished as described. The entire operation is so extraordinary and costly that it almost defies description.

But there’s something else I should mention while we’re on this topic, though I nearly forgot it. By order of the Great Kaan, every three miles between these post-houses, there is a small fort with about forty houses around it, which house the Emperor’s foot-runners. Each of these runners wears a wide belt covered in bells, so as they run the three miles from post to post, their bells can be heard from far away. On arriving at the post, the runner finds another man, dressed in the same way, ready to take over. He immediately hands over whatever he’s carrying, and gets a slip of paper from the clerk stationed there; the new runner sets off and covers the next three miles. At the next station, another man is ready in just the same way, and so the message continues, changing runner every three miles. Using this system, the Emperor—with a great number of these runners—receives news from a place ten days’ journey away in just one day and night; or in an emergency, news from a hundred days away can reach him in ten days and nights, which is truly remarkable! (In fact, during fruit season, it often happens that fruit gathered one morning in Cambaluc reaches the Great Kaan at Chandu by the evening of the next day, even though that is a distance of ten days’ journey. The clerk at each post records the time of each courier’s arrival and departure; and there are often other officials who make monthly inspections of all the posts, punishing any runners who have been slow in their duties.) The Emperor exempts these men from all taxes and pays them well besides.

Additionally, at these posts there are other men, similarly equipped with belts of bells, who are used for express messages in urgent situations—such as when a rapid message needs to reach a provincial governor or to warn of a rebellion or similar emergency. These men will travel two hundred to two hundred and fifty miles in a day, and the same by night. Let me explain how this works: they take a fresh, already saddled horse from those kept ready at the post, and set off at full speed. As soon as they approach the next station, those at the post hear the bells and prepare the next fresh horse and a replacement rider, who takes over the message and is off at full speed to the third post, where again a fresh horse is waiting—and so the message is carried swiftly along from post to post at a full gallop, with regular changes of horses and riders. The speed they achieve is astonishing. (At night, though, they cannot travel as fast as by day, because a footman must run alongside carrying torches, and cannot keep pace at full speed.)

These men are highly valued; and they could not perform such a feat if they did not tightly bind their stomachs, chests, and heads with strong bands. Each of them carries a gerfalcon token, marking that he is on an urgent express; so that if his horse breaks down or something else happens, anyone he meets is compelled to give up his horse for the courier’s use. No one dares refuse; so the courier always has a good, fresh horse to continue his journey.

All these post-horses cost the Emperor nothing; let me explain why. Every city, village, or hamlet near one of these post-stations has a quota assigned for how many horses it must supply, and these it is required to provide. This system supplies the posts in the cities as well as the towns and villages around them; only in uninhabited areas are the horses furnished at the Emperor’s own expense.

(Cities are not required to keep the full number—say, 400 horses—at the station at all times. Instead, each month, 200 are kept at the station while the other 200 are at pasture, rotating as needed. If a river or lake needs to be crossed by the runners and horses, nearby cities must keep three or four boats ready at all times.)

Now I’ll tell you about the great generosity the Emperor shows his people twice a year.

#### CHAPTER XXVII. {.chapter}
How the Emperor Helps His People in Times of Famine or Disease among Cattle

You should know that the Emperor sends his Messengers throughout all his Lands, Kingdoms, and Provinces, to find out from his officers if the people are suffering from famine due to bad seasons, storms, locusts, or other such disasters. For those who have suffered in this way, no taxes are collected for that year; in fact, they are supplied with the Emperor’s own grain for food and seed. This is surely an act of great generosity. When winter comes, inquiries are made to find those who have lost cattle due to murrain or other misfortunes, and such people not only have their taxes waived, but also receive gifts of cattle. In this way, as I have told you, the Emperor helps and supports his people each year.

#### CHAPTER XXVIII. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan Orders Trees to Be Planted Along the Highways.

The Emperor has also ordered that all the highways used by his messengers and by the people in general should be lined with rows of large trees, planted a few paces apart. These trees can be seen from a great distance, so no one can lose their way, whether by day or by night. Even the roads that pass through uninhabited areas are planted in this way, providing tremendous comfort for travelers. This is done on all roads where it can be a help. [The Great Kaan is all the more willing to plant these trees because his astrologers and diviners tell him that planting trees leads to a long life.

But where the ground is so sandy or barren that trees will not grow, he has other landmarks placed, such as pillars or stones, to mark the way.]

#### CHAPTER XXIX. {.chapter}
About the Rice-Wine Drunk by the People of Cathay.

Most people in Cathay drink a kind of wine that I will describe now. It is a liquor they brew from rice, with a mix of excellent spices, so that the resulting drink is better than any other wine; it is not only good, but also clear and pleasant to look at. And since it is quite strong, it makes a person drunk more quickly than other wines.

#### CHAPTER XXX. {.chapter}
About the Black Stones Dug Up in Cathay and Burned for Fuel.

All over the land of Cathay, there are beds of a kind of black stone in the mountains. People dig them out and burn them as fuel, just like firewood. If you put enough of these stones on the fire at night and make sure they are burning well, you will still find them glowing in the morning. They make such excellent fuel that nothing else is used throughout the country. Although there is plenty of wood available, they do not burn it, because the black stones burn better and are less expensive.

#### CHAPTER XXXI. {.chapter}
How the Great Kaan Creates Stores of Grain to Aid His People During Times of Famine

You should know that whenever the Emperor sees that grain is cheap and plentiful, he purchases large quantities and has them stored in great granaries throughout all his provinces. These stores are managed so carefully that the grain will keep for three or four years.

Let me tell you, this applies to all kinds of grain—whether wheat, barley, millet, rice, panic, or others. Whenever there is a shortage of any particular type of grain, he orders that one to be distributed. And if the price of grain stands at one bezant per measure, the Emperor sells it at a rate of one bezant for four measures, or at whatever price will make it widely affordable; thus, everyone is able to feed themselves. With this foresight, the Emperor ensures his people never suffer from famine. He maintains these stores across his entire empire, distributing supplies according to the calculated needs of each province.

Marsden observes in passing (Hist. of Sumatra, 1st edition) that he was told in Bengal that they used to dry-kiln rice before export, “because of this, or some similar process, it remained good for several years.”

#### CHAPTER XXXII. {.chapter}
Of the Emperor’s Charity to the Poor

I have told you how the Great Kaan ensures his people have what they need in times of famine by making purchases in times of abundance. Now let me tell you about his alms and great charity to the poor in his city of Cambaluc.

He orders a selection of households within the city that are in poverty. Some of these families number six, some eight, some ten, or perhaps more or fewer—it varies—but the total number is very large. To each family, he provides annually wheat and other grains sufficient for the whole year—and he never fails in this duty. Furthermore, anyone choosing to come to the daily distribution at the Court receives a large loaf of bread, hot from the oven, and no one is turned away; for so the Lord has commanded. About 30,000 people come for this every day, all year long. This shows great kindness from the Emperor to his poor subjects! They benefit so much that they venerate him almost as a god.

#### CHAPTER XXXIII. {.chapter}

There are in the city of Cambaluc, including Christians, Saracens, and Cathayans, about five thousand astrologers and soothsayers, whom the Great Kaan provides with yearly support and clothing, just as he does for the poor previously mentioned. They continually practice their art in this city.

They use a kind of astrolabe on which are marked the planetary signs, the hours, and the important points throughout the year. Every year, these Christian, Saracen, and Cathayan astrologers—each group separately—consult this astrolabe to study the course and nature of the entire year, according to what each Moon reveals. By observing the position and movement of the planets, along with other celestial circumstances, they attempt to predict the coming year’s weather and the notable events associated with each Moon. For instance, they forecast which Moon will bring thunderstorms and storms, which will see illness, livestock deaths, wars, unrest, and betrayals, and so on, as indicated by their observations; but they always add that God can do as He pleases, for more or less. They record their findings in little booklets called *Tacuin*, which they sell for a groat to anyone who wants to know what is likely to come. Naturally, those astrologers whose predictions prove most accurate gain the most renown and reputation for their skill.

If anyone has an important matter at hand, or is planning a long journey for trade or other business, and wishes to know the likely outcome, he goes to one of these astrologers and says: “Look in your books and see what the heavens indicate for me, for I am about to leave on such and such business.” The astrologer asks for the year, month, and hour of the person’s birth; once he has this information, he will consider how the person’s birth horoscope lines up with the current state of the sky at the time of the question, and then makes a prediction, good or bad, based on what he finds.

You should know as well that the Tartars count their years in groups of twelve; the first year is named after the Lion, the second after the Ox, the third after the Dragon, the fourth after the Dog, and so forth up to the twelfth. So when someone is asked his birth year, he replies, for example, that he was born in the year of the Lion, on such a day or night, at such an hour and moment. The father always makes a point of recording these details in a book for his child. When all twelve year-animals have been cycled through, they begin again with the first, repeating the same sequence.

On the contrary, he considered the photos valuable, as they showed how late the tradition of fine metal casting survived.

This ancient instrument is probably the same as the one engraved in Pauthier’s *Chine Ancienne* under the title “The Sphere of the Emperor Shun” (2255 B.C.!).

After Kúblái’s death, astronomy fell into neglect; when Hongwu, the first Ming emperor, ascended the throne (1368), the subject was nearly forgotten. Not until the reign of Ching was astronomy revived. He was a prince who, in 1573, joined with the astronomer Hing-yun-lu to reform the state of astronomy. (Gaubil.)

What Ricci recorded (in Trigautius) about the profound ignorance of the Chinese *literati* regarding astronomy fully aligns with the statements above.

I had completely forgotten to consult Trigault until Mr. Wylie sent me the excerpt. The copy I use (De Christianâ Expeditione apud Sinas … Auct. Nicolao Trigautio) is from Lugdun. 1616. The first edition was published at August. Vindelicorum (Augsburg) in 1615; the French edition appeared in Lyons in 1616.

“Pinnulis.”

“*Et stilus eo modo quo in horologiis ad perpendiculum collocatus*.”

The *Alidada* is the rotating index bar that carries the *dioptra*, *pinnules*, or sight-vanes. The word is included in some older English dictionaries, and in France and Italy still refers to the rotating index of a plane table or sextant. Littré traces it to (Ar.) *’adád*, meaning enumeration; but it actually comes from a different word, *al-iḍádat* عضادة “a door-post,” which is used in this sense in an Arabic treatise on the Astrolabe. (See Dozy and Engelmann.)

According to Mr. Wylie, this is a mistake by Ricci or his source.

The Chinese divide their year into 24 segments of 15 days each. Of these 24 divisions, twelve called *Kung* mark the twelve points where the sun and moon come into conjunction; these are somewhat similar to our twelve signs of the Zodiac. The names of these *Kung* are completely different from our signs, although since the 17th century the Western Zodiac, with translated names, has appeared in some of their books. In addition, the Chinese divide the sky into 28 stellar sectors. The similarity of this division to the Hindu system of 28 Lunar Mansions, known as *Nakshatras*, has been much discussed. The Chinese *sieu* or stellar spaces are extremely unequal, ranging from 24° in equatorial extent down to 24′. (Williams, op. cit.)

Mr. Wylie is inclined to doubt the accuracy of this statement, as the only city close to the 36th parallel is P’ing-yang fu.

Nevertheless, we have noted regarding this (Polo’s Pianfu, vol. ii.) that a college for the education of Mongol youth was established here by the prominent minister Yeliu Chutsai, whose dedication to astronomy Mr. Wylie previously mentioned. In fact, he founded two colleges: one at Yenking, *i.e.*, Peking, and the other at P’ing-yang. Astronomy was one of the specified fields of study at both locations. (See D’Ohsson, II. 71–72, quoting De Mailla.) It is highly likely that the two collections of instruments were originally meant for these two institutions, and that one set was moved to Nanking when the Ming dynasty made it their capital in 1368.

The 28 *sieu* or stellar spaces mentioned above do not reach the Pole; they actually vary greatly in size along both the meridian and equator. The area in the northern sky not included in them is divided into three large spaces known as *Yuen* or enclosures, with the field of circumpolar stars (or circle of perpetual apparition) forming one enclosure called *Tze-Wei*. (Williams.)

The southern circumpolar stars form a fourth region beyond the 28 *sieu*. *Ibid.*

“This was clearly made in France. Its construction and decoration are not Chinese in any respect. It is quite different from all the others.” (Note by Mr. Wylie.)

“There follows a detailed description of the brass clepsydra and the brass gnomon, which it is unnecessary to translate. I have seen both instruments in two of the lower rooms.”—Id.

We have labeled the ancient instruments as A, B, C, and the modern instruments as 1, 2, 3 to show their correspondences.

#### CHAPTER XXXIV. {.chapter}
Concerning the Religion of the Cathayans; Their Views on the Soul; and Their Customs.

As we mentioned earlier, these people are Idolaters, and when it comes to their gods, each family has a tablet placed high on the wall of their chamber, inscribed with a name that represents the Most High and Heavenly God. They perform daily worship before it, offering incense from a thurible, raising their hands, and clenching their teeth three times, praying for health of mind and body from this deity; but they request nothing else from Him. Below, on the ground, they keep a figure called *Natigai*, which is the god of earthly matters. This god is given a wife and children, and is worshipped in the same way, with incense, gnashing of teeth, and raising of hands; from him, they request things like favorable weather, crops, children, and so on.

Their belief in the immortality of the soul is as follows. They think that as soon as someone dies, their soul enters another body, moving to a better body if they lived well, or to a worse one if they behaved badly. For example, a poor man who has lived an honest and temperate life will be reborn as a gentleman's son, and then, on his next rebirth, as a princess's son, gradually rising higher and higher until eventually being absorbed into the Deity. On the other hand, if someone has behaved badly, a gentleman's son will be reborn as a peasant's son, and then as a dog, sinking lower each time.

The people have a refined style of speech; they greet each other with a cheerful expression and great politeness, behaving with the manners of gentlemen and eating with notable propriety. They show deep respect for their parents. If any son offends his parents or fails to provide for them, there is a public office whose sole duty is to punish ungrateful children found to have acted without proper respect toward their parents.

Various kinds of criminals who have been imprisoned are released at a time determined by the Great Kaan (which occurs every three years), but upon leaving prison they are branded on one cheek so they can be recognized.

The Great Kaan has prohibited all gambling and cheating, things more widespread there than anywhere else in the world. In doing so, he declared: “I have conquered you by force of arms, and all you possess belongs to me; therefore, if you gamble away your property, you are actually gambling away my property.” However, he did not take anything from them.

I should also tell you about the dignified way in which the Kaan’s Barons and others conduct themselves when coming into his presence. First, within half a mile of where he is, out of reverence for his exalted majesty, everyone maintains a demeanor of utmost humility and silence so that no loud voices or noisy talk are heard. Each of the chiefs and nobles always carries a fine little vessel to spit into while in the Hall of Audience—no one dares spit on the floor of the hall—and after spitting, they cover it and set it aside. Similarly, all of them bring along elegant white leather boots, which they put on upon arriving at the entrance to the hall, giving their regular footwear to the servants. This is so they do not soil the beautiful silk and gold carpets of various colors.

“In the worship held here, the Emperor acts as high priest. He alone performs the worship; no subject, whatever their rank, may join him.” (Lockhart.) The current temple dates from 1420–1430, but the *institution* is much older, and there is evidence that such a structure existed under the Mongols, likely only being *restored* by the Ming.

In 1871, I saw at Bond Street an exhibition of so-called “spirit” drawings—supposedly created by a “medium” under supernatural guidance. Many of these odd works claimed to represent the “Spiritual Flowers” of different people; and the catalogue’s explanation matched what is described in the text. It is very unlikely that the artist had read Schott’s Essay, and the coincidence was certainly quite remarkable.

END OF VOL I.![](assets/images/part-1/images/i463.jpg)

Archway built during the Mongol Dynasty, at Kiu Yung Kwan, northwest of Peking.

**MARCO POLO’S ITINERARIES No. IV.**
(Book I, Chapter 36 to end & the main part of Book II.)![](assets/images/part-1/images/i464.jpg)

PLAN OF SHANGTU
Based on a field sketch by Dr. S. W. Bushell, 1872

Crossing the
HWANG-HO
on the way to
SINGAN-FU

Engraved on the walls of this archway is an inscription in six characters, a representation of which appears with ch. xv. of the Prologue, note 1.